Summary What makes this source believable for one reason it s a scholarly. This means it has been

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1 English 102 Summary 1 1. "Female Genital Mutilation from a Human Rights Perspective." AFRICAN VOICES: A NEWSLETTER ON DEMOCRACY AND GOVERNANCE IN AFRICA. 1997: 1+. SIRS Government Reporter. Web. 01 Feb EAC online library 2.2. EAC-Y 2.3. This is a scholarly 3.1. What makes this source believable for one reason it s a scholarly. This means it has been reviewed from others in the field. I also think it s believable because it s from the International Development Agency the USAID. This was also published in the African Voices: Newsletter on Democracy and governance in Africa. At the bottom of the page it shows where they got their information from I couldn t find any information of the authors on the page because there isn t one listed. I decided to search the USAID foundation online. I found a lot of information. Their website is a little out of date. The last time it was revised was on Nov. 18 th There isn t any dead links that I could find. Their website has contact information along with their mission statement. They have links showing all the work around the world that they do. What I found interesting was they had a link showing where all the money donated to them goes. They seem to be a very large and involved humanitarian group. 3.3 I think this information is geared toward the readers to explain what FGM is, the complications that go along with it, and what the USAID group is trying to do to stop it. I think the group is trying to persuade people to try and bring about this change.

2 3.4. I think this article is written for people in the humanitarian field. This is a very informative paper explaining exactly what FGM is, and what the USAID group is doing in order to prevent this happening to more women Yes 3.6. This was written in 1997 and published in a magazine No this source does not talk about another opinion. Even though it doesn t, I know this is still a good article because in my paper I want to talk about the different groups who are working to prevent FGM/Cutting. This article is well organized and a perfect organization to include in my paper This group values human rights. They know that FGM/Cutting is a deep seeded problem in the rural communities. With the risks outweighing the benefits, this group is determined to teach men, boys, midwifes, and even women of the society that getting this procedure done causes more harm than good (5) This article is reasonable. They aren t blasting other humanitarian groups. They are simply stating what their mission is, and what their goals are to stopping this violence I think the article uses Logos and ethos. They use logos because they offer a lot of statistics and facts on FGM/Cutting. The ethos they portray of themselves is expressed through what their company stands for. A person not digging deeper would be more likely to believe everything this group says just because they are claiming to be a humanitarian group. I dug deeper and researched their group. Everything in their article they claim to stand for stands true on their online homepage. This is a well-developed humanitarian group looking to make a change in the world.

3 Notes FGM is a traditional practice that cuts and removes sexual organs. This practice causes harm and can lead to death (1) FGM remains extremely complex and culturally sensitive, and involves a broad spectrum of issues such as maternal and child health, population, and human rights, and USAID is taking a multisectoral approach to its prevention (1). USAID wants to help empower women and to teach them how to stop this practice (2). In 1994 the World Health organization had estimated that between million girls had been circumcised. In West and East Africa 2 million girls are being circumcised. Most of these girls are young and are between the ages of 4-12 (2). FGM occurs most frequently in rural communities. FGM is not required by any religion. This is an old tradition passed down that women must be circumcised to be accepted in community. Girls who refuse this procedure can be ostracized from community (2). Complications resulting from FGM include hemorrhaging, shock during the procedure that can result in death, infection, urine retention with accompanying complications, permanent damage to the urethra or anus, serious negative psychological and social complications, and depending on the form of FGM, obstructed labor and delivery, jeopardizing the safety of both mother and child (2). The following treaties are protecting Women Rights and health: International Bill of Human Rights, Universal Declaration of Human rights, the International Covenant civil and political rights, and the international covenant on economic, social, and cultural rights. Legal Intervention needs to be done properly. A decree prohibiting FGM in Kenya led to hundreds of young women being circumcised. Countries around the world are performing

4 circumcision at younger and younger ages in case the practice becomes illegal in their community (3). Their strategy to intervention paragraph talks how public awareness is critical in preventing this practice. The whole community needs to be involved to stop this practice (4). USAID s approach programs are geared to be culturally sensitive. They are trying to change the attitudes of everyone involved, the mothers, daughters, and men of the society (4). USAID can achieve change because they help women make their own changes in the community. This is important because FGM is a sensitive issue. This change cannot be forced on these women (4).

5 Title: Female Genital Mutilation from a Human Rights Perspective 1 Source: AFRICAN VOICES: A NEWSLETTER ON DEMOCRACY AND GOVERNANCE IN AFRICA Publication Date: Summer 1997 Page Number: 1+ Database: SIRS Government Reporter "FGM [female genital mutilation], also termed female circumcision, collectively refers to several traditional practices that involve cutting and partial removal of sexual organs. The centuries-old practice can cause severe harm to girls and women throughout their lives, at times resulting in death. FGM remains extremely complex and culturally sensitive, and involves a broad spectrum of issues such as maternal and child health, population, and human rights, and USAID is taking a multisectoral approach to its prevention. As part of its efforts to eliminate the practice of FGM, USAID is collecting data on its prevalence through several demographic and health surveys and situation analyses of family planning/reproductive health service delivery. The Agency is also working to empower women to undertake actions that will halt the practice of FGM." (AFRICAN VOICES: A NEWSLETTER ON DEMOCRACY AND GOVERNANCE IN AFRICA) USAID's work in prevention and awareness of FGM is discussed. AFRICAN VOICES: A NEWSLETTER ON DEMOCRACY AND GOVERNANCE IN AFRICA Summer 1997 Page(s) : 1+ International Development Agency (USAID) International Development Agency (USAID) FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION FROM A HUMAN RIGHTS PERSPECTIVE USAID Working Group Focuses on Prevention and Awareness by the USAID Working Group on FGM The ordeal of Fauziya Kasinga, who was granted asylum in a precedent-setting decision by the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service rather than return to Togo where she feared being forcibly subjected to female genital mutilation, or FGM, brought widespread attention to the issue in the United States and elsewhere. FGM, also termed female circumcision, collectively refers to several traditional practices that involve cutting and partial removal of sexual organs. The centuries-old practice can cause severe harm to girls and women throughout their lives, at times resulting in death. FGM remains extremely complex and culturally sensitive, and involves a broad spectrum of issues such as maternal and child health, population, and human rights, and USAID is taking a multisectoral approach to its prevention. As part of its efforts to eliminate the practice of FGM, USAID is collecting data on its prevalence through several demographic and health surveys and situation analyses of

6 2 family planning/reproductive health service delivery (see table). The Agency is also working to empower women to undertake actions that will halt the practice of FGM. PREVALENCE OF FGM The World Health Organization estimated in 1994 that between 85 and 115 million girls and women have been subjected to FGM worldwide. Approximately two million girls per year, primarily from Western and Eastern Africa, are at risk. Most commonly, young girls between the ages of four and 12 are subjected to FGM.(1) The prevalence of FGM varies according to education, social class, and level of urbanization, with the highest prevalence rates in rural communities with limited exposure to formal education and information networks. Although FGM is not a requirement of any religion, many traditions dictate that women be "circumcised" for acceptance into their communities. Entire families of girls refusing to submit to this tradition may be severely ostracized. Studies conducted in Kenya and Nigeria in the late 1980s and early 1990s indicate that FGM is still prevalent. Approximately 90 percent of women over 14 who were interviewed for the Kenya study had been circumcised, while the Nigeria study indicated a prevalence range of 15 to 90 percent. In some parts of West Africa secret societies perform ritual circumcision as a part of female initiation rites. A recent report from Sierra Leone claimed that at least 600 young girls at a camp for displaced people outside of Freetown were subjected to FGM during such a ceremony. One hundred of the girls, who were between the ages of eight and 15, were reported to have suffered severe complications. Complications resulting from FGM include hemorrhaging, shock during the procedure that can result in death, infection, urine retention with accompanying complications, permanent damage to the urethra or anus, serious negative psychological and social complications, and depending on the form of FGM, obstructed labor and delivery, jeopardizing the safety of both mother and child. INTERNATIONAL LAW (2) In addition to having potentially serious health consequences, the practice of FGM seriously violates women's human rights. Women's rights and health are protected under major human rights treaties, including the INTERNATIONAL BILL OF HUMAN RIGHTS, which includes the UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS, the INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS, and the INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND CULTURAL RIGHTS. The CONVENTION AGAINST TORTURE AND OTHER CRUEL, INHUMAN OR DEGRADING TREATMENT OR PUNISHMENT may also be applicable to FGM.

7 In 1990, the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women adopted GENERAL RECOMMENDATION NO. 14, FEMALE CIRCUMCISION, which noted "with grave concern that there are continuing cultural, traditional and economic pressures that help to perpetuate harmful practices, such as female circumcision." 3 Article 2 of the DECLARATION ON THE ELIMINATION OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN explicitly states that "Violence against women shall be understood to encompass, but not be limited to...physical, sexual, and psychological violence occurring in the family, including battering, sexual abuse of female children in the household, dowry-related violence, marital rape, female genital mutilation, and other traditional practices harmful to women." Governments worldwide also recognize that FGM violates the rights of children, as stated in Article 24(3) of the 1990 United Nations CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD: "State Parties shall take all effective and appropriate measures with a view to abolishing traditional practices prejudicial to the health of children." INTERNATIONAL OUTCRY In May 1993 the 46th World Health Assembly adopted a resolution, sponsored by a group of African countries, which highlighted the importance of eliminating harmful traditional practices, including FGM. Other international conferences have also condemned the practice. The Programme of Action of the 1994 United Nations International Conference of Population and Development in Cairo urged all governments to "prohibit female genital mutilation wherever it exists and to give vigorous support to efforts among nongovernmental and community organizations and religious institutions to eliminate such practices." The Platform for Action from the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China (1995), mentions the practice a total of nine times in sections pertaining to health, violence, the girl child, negative cultural practices, and discrimination against women. LEGAL INTERVENTION International commitments applicable to FGM are already in place in many countries through the ratification of the treaties mentioned above. Although supporting legislation for criminal punishment of such practices might be effective tools for preventing FGM, in countries where large majorities believe in and adhere to these traditional practices, legal sanctions incriminating providers might prove counterproductive. For example, when a presidential decree in Kenya prohibited FGM, several hundred young girls were immediately circumcised as a result. Anecdotal evidence indicates that girls in many countries are being circumcised at increasingly younger ages in response to fears that the practice will become illegal in their communities.

8 Twenty-one countries in sub-saharan Africa have published policies opposing FGM. Sudan, Ghana, and Burkina Faso have legislation that legally prohibits the practice; Guinea and the Central African Republic also have enacted laws that may be interpreted to address FGM. Yet to date, these laws and policies have not yet been proved effective in curtailing the practice. 4 Although laws that criminalize FGM may result in backlash, drive the practice underground, or ultimately increase its severity, some form of litigation may prove useful in combating the practice. For example, designing a civil code of recourse that would enable the complainant to bring suit against those who would attempt circumcision may be a promising (albeit untried) method. Such activities could pave the way for clear policy declarations by states parties and professional bodies. STRATEGIES FOR INTERVENTION Critical to prevention efforts are public awareness campaigns designed to underscore the harmful effects of FGM. Private counseling of clients and parents could assist such an effort. Because FGM is perpetuated by the entire community, everyone must be involved in eradication efforts through public education campaigns. Other efforts addressing key factors in the practice, such as alternative initiation rites and alternative economic opportunities for circumcisors, also show promise. USAID's APPROACH USAID is committed to halting the practice of FGM. Because FGM is a gender-based, sociocultural, health, and human rights issue, any interventions require a multisectoral approach. FGM is a problem that involves entire communities, including men, women, girls, boys, grandparents, midwives, traditional birth attendants, doctors, nurses, and religious and community leaders. Prevention efforts must be appropriate to each target group and be culturally sensitive. For example, programs to change the attitudes of mothers and daughters may need to involve males to be effective. The cornerstone of USAID's approach to this issue is to empower women from host countries to undertake actions that will halt the practice of FGM. The Agency remains committed to the principles of participatory development, and such an approach becomes even more pivotal when addressing an issue as sensitive as FGM. By helping women to work within their own communities and political structures for change, USAID will ensure that sustainable changes in attitudes and practices will be achieved in a culturally appropriate manner. USAID's ACTIONS TO DATE

9 Issues involving FGM relate to two of USAID's main goals: stabilizing global population and protecting human health; and building democracy. During fiscal years 1994 and 1995 USAID committed $1.5 million towards the eradication of FGM. An Agency- wide FGM Task Force established in 1994 meets regularly to ensure attention to FGM and to plan and implement USAID support in this area. Activities include: PROGRAM GUIDELINES: In collaboration with the non- governmental organization Research, Action, and Information Network for Bodily Integrity of Women (RAINBO), the FGM Working Group has developed program guidelines for the eradication of FGM. These guidelines, which will form the basis of an Agency Strategy, provide for establishing a liaison to help coordinate FGM programs and activities; and training for Washington and field-based staff. They also specify programmatic needs for future activities. 5 POLICY AND INTER-AGENCY COLLABORATION: working group members cooperate with other organizations working in the area of FGM, including: participating in the first World Health Organization Technical Working Group on FGM, which developed the international definition and classification of FGM; coordinating with the Department of State and the U.S. Government Intra- Agency Working Group on FGM Eradication Activities; and collaborating with the Department of Health and Human Services to formulate plans to carry out the Congressional mandate to address the issue of FGM in the United States. USAID is undertaking several projects addressing both the human rights and health aspects of the practice: HUMAN RIGHTS AND LEGAL REFORM INTERVENTIONS: USAID's Office of Women in Development is collaborating with the Center for Development and Population Activities and the International Center for Research on Women to strengthen the efforts of women's groups and community organizations to educate communities, the media, and policymakers about the human rights implications of FGM, and to implement preventive programs such as advocacy and legal reform. COMMUNITY INTERVENTIONS AND OPERATIONS RESEARCH: Cooperating Agencies of USAID's Center for Population, Health, and Nutrition are conducting operations research to develop and test community- level interventions for the prevention of FGM in several countries, including Kenya, Mali, Guinea, Eritrea, and Burkina Faso. Information and education materials are being developed in Egypt, and work is underway to develop operations research activities in Navrongo, Ghana. For more information contact Cate Johnson, USAID/G/WID, SA- 38, Room 908, Washington, DC ; telephone ; cate@usaid.gov * * *

10 ESTIMATED PREVALENCE (%) OF FGM IN SELECTED COUNTRIES BASED ON THE DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH SURVEYS (DATE OF SURVEY) 6 Central African Republic ('94-'95): 43 Cote d'ivoire (1994): 43 Egypt (1995): 97 Mali ('95-'96): 94 Sudan (1989): 89 * * * NOTES 1. Toubia, Nahid. FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION: A CALL FOR GLOBAL ACTION. New York: Research, Action, and Information Network for Bodily Integrity of Women, This section is based on a report written by Binaifer Davar: "Alert Series: Female Genital Mutilation." Asylum Division of the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1994.