Imunski mehanizmi odbrane u infekciji bacilom tuberkuloze

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1 Broj 3 VOJNOSANITETSKI PREGLED Strana 309 UDC : Imunski mehanizmi odbrane u infekciji bacilom tuberkuloze Zoran S. Staji}*, Milica M. ]u}uz ü Vojnomedicinska akademija, *Klinika za plu}ne bolesti, ü Institut za medicinska istra`ivanja, Beograd K lj u ~ n e r e ~ i : tuberkuloza; mycobacterium tuberculosis; imunski sistem; komplementi; limfociti T; makrofagi; citokini. K e y w o r d s : tuberculosis; mycobacterium tuberculosis; immune system; complement; T-lymphocytes; macrophages; cytokines. Uvod Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MT) je spororastu}i, aerobni, fakultativni intracelularni patogen, uzro~nik tuberkuloze, koja od pojave AIDS-a sredinom 1980-tih ponovo bele`i zna~ajan porast incidence. Prema epidemiolo{kim podacima godi{nje se u svetu registruje oko 10 miliona novih slu~ajeva i oko 3 miliona umrlih od tuberkuloze (1). Tako e je poslednjih godina pove}ana i rezistencija MT prema antituberkuloticima. Prema sada{njim procenama smatra se da je oko 50% sojeva MT multirezistentno prema antituberkuloticima (2), dok je i pitanje efikasnosti BCG vakcine otvoreno. Smatra se da BCG vakcina pru`a za{titu samo kod novoro en~adi i kod njih je jedino opravdana primena (3). Imunopatogenetski, infekcija bacilom tuberkuloze obuhvata tri stadijuma: 1) uspostavljanje infekcije i pokretanje imunske reakcije; 2) hroni~na, latentna infekcija; 3) reaktivacija sa klini~kim manifestacijama aktivne tuberkuloze. Zbog kompetentnosti imunskog sistema u izolaciji infektivog fokusa i spre~avanju diseminacije bacila kod ve}ine inficiranih se u toku `ivota odr`ava latentna infekcija bez klini~kih manifestacija. Ipak, kod oko 10% inficiranih osoba, usled neadekvatnog funkcionisanja (celularnog) imunskog sistema kod HIV infekcije, starosti, tumorske kaheksije, proteinske malnutricije, jatrogene imunosupresije, nastaje reaktivacija latentne infekcije sa diseminacijom bacila i klini~kim manifestacijama aktivne tuberkuloze. Uloga komplementa u fagocitozi MT Komplement, kao prva linija odbrane doma}ina od patogenih mikroorganizama, pru`a zna~ajan doprinos odbrani i od tuberkuloze. Aktivacijom komplementa nastaju C3b i C3bi degradacioni produkti, koji se kao opsonini vezuju za MT i olak{avaju njihovu eliminaciju putem fagocitoze. Proteine komplementa sekretuju makrofagi, a do kontakta sa MT dolazi u plu}nim alveolama (4) tokom hematogene diseminacije, ali i na drugim mestima u organizmu (5). Odranije je poznato da se aktivacija komplementa kod tuberkuloze, osim klasi~nim, odigrava i alternativnim putem. Tako je pokazano da neke komponente }elijskog zida MT mogu aktivisati komplement u prisustvu visokih koncentracija neimunskog humanog seruma (6), dok je nedavno potvr ena mogu}nost direktne aktivacije komplementa preko manoza-vezuju}ih receptora i pridru`enih serin-proteaza prisutnih na povr{ini MT (7 9). Neki autori smatraju da, osim ova dva poznata puta aktivacije komplementa, postoji i dodatni put. Tako su Shorey i sar. (10) nedavno pokazali da C2a razla`e C3 nezavisno od C1 i C4b. Ostaje ipak nerazja{njeno otkud C2a koji se normalno ne nalazi u sve`em humanom serumu, ve} nastaje kao rezultat aktivacije klasi~nog puta. Jedno od mogu}ih obja{njenja jeste da je potrebna veoma mala koli~ina C2a za aktivaciju C3 i da se ovaj na~in aktivacije komplementa odigrava pri niskim koncentracija njegovih komponenata. Staji} ZS, ]u}uz MM. Vojnosanit Pregl 2002; 59(3): 309Þ316.

2 Strana 310 VOJNOSANITETSKI PREGLED Broj 3 MT preko vezanih C3b i C3bi proteina na svojoj povr- {ini adherira za receptore za komplement (CR) eksprimovane na makrofagima. Osim kod adhezije, receptori za komplement su povezani i sa unutar}elijskim signalnim putevima. Tako je, na primer, pokazano da vezivanje CR3 receptora za makrofage izaziva i efektorsku reakciju: produkciju molekula respiratornog praska (H 2 O 2, NO, O 2 ) (11) ili sekreciju interleukina-12 (IL-12) (12, 13). Pretpostavlja se da bi reakcija makrofaga prema MT mogla zavisiti i od anga`ovanja drugih }elijskih receptora ili CR3 pridru`enih proteina, kao na primer CD14 (14). Nedavno su Brightbill i sar. (15) pokazali da su i dva toll-like receptora (TLR-2 i TLR-4) prisutna na makrofagama uklju~ena u reakciju prema MT. Smatra se da se MT preko brojnih komponenata svog }elijskog zida vezuje za TLR-2 i TLR-4, {to preko aktivacije transkripcionog faktora NF-κB dovodi do sinteze i sekrecije IL-12 i faktora nekroze tumora (TNF), klju~nih medijatora celularne imunske reakcije u tuberkulozi. Fagocitoza i mehanizmi pre`ivljavanja MT u fagozomu Inhalaciju MT putem aerosola i Fligeovih kapi prati njihovo ubrzano uklanjanje procesom fagocitoze alveolnih makrofaga. Makrofagi, }elije mononukleusnog fagocitnog sistema koje svoje poreklo vode iz kostne sr`i, na svojoj }elijskoj membrani imaju izra`ene brojne receptore koji posreduju pri adheziji i ingestiji patogenih mikroorganizama (16). Ipak, samo za mali broj ovih receptora je potvr ena uloga u procesu fagocitoze MT. Receptori za komplement CR-1, CR-3 i CR-4 su neophodni za fagocitozu MT. Receptor CR-1 (CD35) prepoznaje C3b i C4b opsonizovane ~estice MT, dok CR-3 (CD11b/CD18) i CR-4 (CD11c/CD18), ~lanovi familije beta-2 integrina, primarno prepoznaju C3bi opsonizovane MT (17). Osim na alveolnim makrofagima, familija receptora za komplement je prisutna na svim mononuklearnim fagocitima, {to obezbe uje brzu fagocitozu MT. Signalni putevi aktivacije mononukleusnih fagocita nakon vezivanja CR nisu potpuno poznati. Interesantno je da vezivanje CR mo`e osim aktivacionih stvoriti i inhibitorne signale. Nakon fagocitoze `ivi MT dospevaju u fagocitnu vakuolu fagozom. S obzirom na to da je MT intracelularni patogen, te da nije dostupan efektorskim mehanizmima humoralnog imuniteta (antitela), za njegovu destrukciju i eliminaciju potrebno je potpuno aktiviranje inficiranih mononukleusnih fagocita, ~ime se poja~ava njihov mikrobicidni kapacitet. Me- utim, tokom svoje evolucije MT je stekao brojne specijalizovane mehanizme koji mu omogu}avaju pre`ivljavanje i umno- `avanje u nepovoljnoj intracelularnoj sredini makrofaga nakon fagocitoze. Smatra se da je za pre`ivljavanje MT unutar makrofaga najva`nije spre~avanje fuzije fagozoma sa kiselim odeljkom lizosoma. Na~in na koji MT to ostvaruje jo{ uvek nije dovoljno jasan. Jedno od mogu}ih obja{njenja je ponudio Dan Clemens, koji je nedavno objavio da vakuole makrofaga koje sadr`e `ive MT sti~u i zadr`avaju rab5, mali GTP-vezuju}i protein, koji je uklju~en u proces fuzije endozoma (18). Persistencija rab5 bi mogla imati va`nu ulogu u zaustavljanju procesa maturacije vakuola i spre~avanju interakcije sa kasnim endozomnim odeljkom i fuzije sa lizosomima. Tako e je nedavno potvr eno da u inficiranim makrofagama MT mo`e aktivisati mehanizme koji olak{avaju transport velikih molekula izme u citosola i fagosoma (19), {to bi moglo zna~ajno da uti~e na sposobnost njegovog pre- `ivljavanja (patogenost), ali i na imunogenost (omogu}avanje ulaska antigenskih peptida u citosol i uklju~ivanje u endogeni put obrade i prezentacije antigena u sklopu molekula glavnog histokompatibilnog kompleksa MHC). O molekulskim mehanizmima sticanja rezistencije na antituberkulotike nije se do skoro mnogo znalo. Da MT zaista sti~u rezistenciju prema antituberkuloticima pokazao je John McKinney u eksperimentima na mi{evima, kod kojih je svaki put posle intenzivne i dovoljno duge antibiotske terapije u plu}ima opstajao izvestan broj `ivih bacila, koje je nazvao persisterima. Smatra se da MT persisteri sti~u rezistenciju na antituberkulotike mutacijom gena, ~iji transkripti reguli{u preuzimanje leka i/ili metabolizam leka u mikobakterijama (20). Persisteri MT podle`u i metaboli~kim promenama. Jedna od najva`nijih je pove}anje aktivnosti glioksilatnog {anta i de novo sinteza izocitrat liaze (ICL). Ovaj enzim je prvi u lancu glioksilatnog puta i njegova uloga u regulisanju anaerobnog metabolizma i glukoneogeneze je veoma zna- ~ajna (21). Pretpostavlja se da je ICL verovatno klju~ni metaboli~ki faktor koji omogu}ava pre`ivljavanje MT u nepovoljnoj anaerobnoj sredini makrofaga. Tako e je potvr eno da MT poseduje i mehanizme pomo}u kojih zaustavlja proces aktivacije inficiranih makrofaga. Ting i sar. (22) su pokazali da je jedan od mogu}ih mehanizama inhibicije makrofaga blokada odgovora makrofaga na interferon gama (IFN-γ), ~ime se zaustavlja proces njihove aktivacije. Nepotpuno aktivisani makrofagi bi mogli, zbog slabljenja kostimulatorne uloge, zaustaviti i aktivaciju antigen-specifi~nih T limfocita, ~ime se spre~ava efikasna destrukcija fagocitovanih MT. Osim toga, poznato je da je eliminacija bakterija sa debelim }elijskim zidom i bogatim lipidima ote`ana procesom fagocitoze. Isto se odnosi i na MT koji u svom zidu sadr`i veliku koli~inu lipida. Osim do sada otkrivenih mehanizama verovatno postoje i jo{ mnogi drugi koji spre~avaju ili ote`avaju intracelularnu digestiju MT. Smatra se da je za kapacitet pre`ivljavanja u nepovoljnoj intracelularnoj sredini makrofaga odgovoran genom MT. Cole i sar. (23) su nedavno definisali kompletnu genomsku sekvencu MT, ~ija veli~ina od 4,4Mb je druga po veli~ini od svih sekvenci mikroorganizama do sada definisanih jedino je genom Esherichiae coli ve}i. Celularni imunski odgovor u kontroli tuberkuloze Odlu~uju}i doprinos celularne imunske reakcije u kontroli tuberkuloze poznat je odranije (24). Prezentacija

3 Broj 3 VOJNOSANITETSKI PREGLED Strana 311 peptidnih antigena MT u sklopu molekula MHC klase I i II klju~na je za aktivaciju CD4+ odnosno CD8+ T limfocita. Dokazi za ovo dolaze iz brojnih studija na knock-out mi{evima za beta-2 mikroglobulin i TAP gene (eng. transporter in antigen processing), ~iji su produkti neophodni za prezentaciju MT antigena (25). Ranije je pokazano da ove `ivotinje imaju zna~ajno smanjen imunski odgovor prema MT zbog ~ega veoma brzo podle`u tuberkulozi (26). Interferon gama (IFN-¾) klju~ni medijator celularne imunske reakcije kod tuberkuloze CD4+ T limfociti u~estvuju u kontroli tuberkuloze posredstvom citokina koje sekretuju, a od kojih je najzna~ajniji IFN-γ, najpotentniji aktivator makrofaga. Glavni }elijski izvor IFN-γ je Th-1 subpopulacija CD4+ T limfocita, dok CD8+ T limfociti doprinose kontroli tuberkuloze produkcijom IFN-γ u manjoj meri. Naime, za potpunu aktivaciju limfocita, osim prepoznavanja antigenskih peptida u sklopu molekula MHC na povr{ini antigen prezentuju}ih }elija (alveolarni makrofagi), potreban je i drugi, kostimulatorni signal, koji nastaje interakcijom CD28 (limfocit) CD80/CD86 (makrofag). Na taj na~in omogu}ena je diferencijacija, proliferacija i ekspanzija antigen specifi~nih T limfocita koji imaju sposobnost produkcije IFN-γ, interleukina-1 (IL-1) i interleukina-2 (IL-2), citokina koji vi{estruko poja~avaju aktivaciju inficiranih makrofaga, odnosno njihov liti~ki potencijal (31) (sl. 1). Produkcija N0 fagozom Produkcija IFN gama alveolarni makrofag CD4+T-limfocit (Th1) IL-2 aktivacija, diferencijacija, proliferacija MHC II mikobakterijski antigen TCR CD4+T-limfocit (Th0) prezentacija MT antigena naivnim T limfocitima Sl. 1 Mehanizam dejstva CD4+ T limfocita u tuberkulozi. TCR T }elijski receptor; MHC II molekul II klase glavnog histokompatibilnog kompleksa; Th0 set T limfocita nediferenciranih u odnosu na citokinski profil; Th1 set T limfocita koji produkuje interferon gama; IL-12 interleukin-12; NO azot monoksid. Modifikovano prema: Murray PJ (31). Poslednjih godina postoje dokazi da, osim peptidnih antigena, makrofagi sadr`e i lipidne antigene. Tako je nedavno identifikovana subpopulacija CD1+ T limfocita koji Ìprepoznaju lipidne antigene prezentovane sa neklasi~nim molekulima MHC klase Ib (27 29). Ipak, doprinos ove populacije T limfocita u kontroli tuberkuloze je nedovoljno jasan i potrebna su dodatna istra`ivanja. Za NK }elije (29) i γδ T }elije (30), posebne populacije limfocita, ve}ina istra`iva~a smatra da nemaju zna~ajniju ulogu u eliminisanju MT. Pretpostavlja se da je njihova uloga ograni~ena na ranu fazu infekcije u kojoj u~estvuju u prepoznavanju ubikvitarnih antigena MT, kao i u produkciji proinflamatornih citokina, neophodnih za poja~anje antigen prezentuju}e funkcije makrofaga. Za eliminaciju MT u mi{jem modelu tuberkuloze najva`nije dejstvo sekretovanog IFN-γ je aktivacija enzima inducibilne azot oksid sintaze (inos), koji reguli{e produkciju azotnog oksida (NO) u mi{jim makrofagama (32), molekula sa najja~im mikrobicidnim dejstvom. Zna~aj IFN-γ, njegovog receptora i inos je pokazan na knock-out mi{evima, koji su bili veoma osetljivi prema tuberkulozi, dok su IFN-γ knock-out mi{evi bili osetljivi i prema avirulentnom BCG soju (33). Kod mi{eva sa latentnom tuberkulozom koji su bili tretirani aminogvanidinom (inos inhbitorom) nastaje reaktivacija infekcije. Ovi rezultati nedvosmisleno potvr uju zna~aj IFN-γ kao najva`nijeg citokina u procesu aktivacije inficiranih makrofaga, inos kao komponente signalnog puta, i NO kao efektorskog mehanizma za eliminisanje MT u mi{eva. Interferon gama pove}ava mikrobicidni kapacitet makrofaga produkcijom i drugih, za MT toksi~nih molekula: vodonik-peroksida, slobodnih kiseoni~kih i peroksidnih radikala. Za aktivaciju mi{jih makrofaga i kontrolu tuberkuloze IFN-γ je neophodan, ali ne i dovoljan signal (34, 35). Dokazi da je potreban i drugi signal dolaze iz brojnih izvora i razli~itih eksperimentnih sistema. Smatra se da je IFN-γ odgovoran za regulaciju ekspresije transkripcionog faktora IRF- 1 (36), a da je drugi signal neophodan za translokaciju NFκB iz citosola u nukleus, {to se de{ava neposredno nakon degradacije njegovog inhibitora I-κB. Za aktivaciju inos-a

4 Strana 312 VOJNOSANITETSKI PREGLED Broj 3 NF-κB je kriti~an transkripcioni faktor. Drugi signal koji bi mogao aktivirati NF-κB bi mogao biti lipopolisaharid (LPS), TNF ili IL-1. Naime, zapa`eno je da makrofagi stimulisani in vitro IFN-γ i TNF, IL-1 ili LPS pokazuju znatno ve}i stepen aktivacije. Uloga IFN-γ u kontroli tuberkuloze kod ljudi nije potpuno jasna. Naime, u klini~kim studijama je zapa`eno da su bolesnici sa deficitom alfa ili beta lanca IFN-γ receptora umirali od avirulentnih sojeva BCG i Mycobacterium fortuitum, ali ne i od Mycobacterium tuberculosis (37). Nejasno je zbog ~ega se to de{ava. Sli~no mi{jim makrofagima i humani makrofagi stvaraju za MT toksi~ne molekule: NO, H 2 O 2, slobodne kiseoni~ke i peroksidne radikale. Va`no autokrino dejstvo kojim IFN-γ pove}ava sopstvenu produkciju je pove}anje ekspresije MHC molekula klase II i kostimulatornih molekula CD80 i CD86 na makrofagama, ~ime se pove}ava aktivacija Th-1 limfocita koji i stvaraju IFN-γ. Interleukin-12 (IL-12) je citokin koji predstavlja vezu nespecifi~nog sa specifi~nim celularnim imunitetom. Njegova uloga u mehanizmu odbrane od tuberkuloze podrazumeva pove}anje sekrecije IFN-γ stimulacijom diferencijacije neopredeljenih CD4+ T limfocita Th-0 citokinskog profila prema Th-1 subpopulaciji (38). U klini~kim studijama na bolesnicima sa kongenitalnom deficijencijom p40 subjedinice IL-12 receptora na eno je da je kapacitet sekrecije IFN-γ zna~ajno smanjen, kao i znatno ve}a osetljivost prema tuberkulozi u odnosu na zdrave (39). Nedavni poku{aji le~enja tuberkuloze kod ovih bolesnika kombinovanom primenom antituberkulotika i IFN-γ dali su ohrabruju}e rezultate. Faktor nekroze tumora (TNF) - Ìdvostruki ma~ kod infekcije bacilom tuberkuloze Ranije je nagla{eno da je, pored IFN-γ, TNF zajedno sa IL-1 ili LPS neophodan kofaktor za aktivaciju makrofaga. TNF knock-out mi{evi su visoko osetljivi prema MT, imaju normalnu ekspresiju inos u plu}ima, ali smanjenu sposobnost formiranja granuloma, koji su i morfolo{ki aberantni (40). Na osnovu ovih nalaza zaklju~eno je da je TNF klju~ni citokin za pravilno formiranje granuloma. Granulom je patognomoni~na }elijska formacija za tuberkulozu koja obuhvata centralnu zonu kazeozne nekroze u kojoj se nalaze MT, }elijski i tkivni debris, i periferni omota~ sastavljen od makrofaga, CD4+ i CD8+ T limfocita, d`inovskih Langhansovih i epiteloidnih }elija. Granulom potencijalno ostvaruje dvostruku ulogu: za{titnu (izolacija infektivnog fokusa i spre~avanje diseminacije bacila), ali i {tetnu u prisustvu visokih koncentracija sekretovanog TNF (o{te}enje tkiva zbog ekstenzivne fibroze ili raspad granuloma usled intenzivne kazeozne nekroze sa sledstvenom diseminacijom bacila). Tako u odsustvu TNF izostaje adekvatna kontrola infekcije (formiranje granuloma je aberantno), ali i u njegovim ekscesno velikim koncentracijama infekcija nije efikasno kontrolisana (diseminacija bacila), te zbog toga mnogi autori TNF ozna~avaju Ìdvostrukim ma~em kod tuberkuloze. Uloga CD8+ T limfocita u kontroli tuberkuloze Odranije je bilo poznato da CD8+ T limfociti u~estvuju u odbrani od tuberkuloze, s tim {to je njihov doprinos tome do skoro bio prili~no kontroverzan. Ipak, nedavno objavljeni rezultati eksperimentnih studija potvr uju zna~ajnu ulogu ove }elijske populacije u odbrani od MT infekcije, pa se ~ak smatra da bi ove }elije mogle biti i klju~ne u stvaranju nove i efikasnije vakcine od BCG (41). Dok CD4+ T limfociti ostvaruju efektorsku funkciju u odbrani od tuberkuloze produkcijom citokina, dotle je mehanizam dejstva CD8+ T limfocita slo`eniji i obuhvata produkciju citokina (IFN-γ), citolizu i indukciju apoptoze inficiranih makrofaga (sl. 2). Osim toga, potvr ena je i mogu}nost da CD8+ T limfociti mogu in vitro direktno lizirati MT (42). fagozom alveolarni makrofag MHC I mikobakterijski antigen TCR 1. aktivacija 2. liza inficiranih 3. apoptoza inficiranih makrofaga inficiranih makrofaga (perforin-granzim) makrofaga (produkcija N0) (interakcija Fas-Fasl) Sl. 2 Mehanizam dejstva CD8+ T limfocita u tuberkulozi. TCR - T }elijski receptor; MHC I molekul I klase glavnog histokompatibilnog kompleksa. Modifikovano prema: Flynn JA (37).

5 Broj 3 VOJNOSANITETSKI PREGLED Strana 313 dovode do inhibicije imunskih reakcija, {to je va`no za spre- ~avanje o{te}enja tkiva koje bi moglo nastati usled ekscesivne i prolongirane aktivacije imunskog sistema. Nekoliko mehanizama je odgovorno za proces inhibicije: a) deplecija stimulusa, b) deplecija samih aktivisanih imunskih }elija mehanizmom programirane }elijske smrti i v) supresija aktivisanih }elija citokinima. Brojne eksperimentalne studije potvr uju dominantnu ulogu interleukina-10 (IL-10) i faktora transformacije rasta beta-1 (TGF-β1) u mehanizmu supresije makrofaga i T limfocita nakon eliminacije ve}ine MT. IL-10 je prvi citokin za koji je pokazano da suprimira aktivaciju makrofaga antagonizovanjem dejstva IFN-γ, TNF, IL-1 i LPS (48). Smanjenjem ekspresije molekula MHC II klase, CD80 i CD86 (kostimulatornih molekula) IL-10 inhibira i dalju aktivaciju T limfocita. TGF-β1 deluje sli~nim mehanizmom supresije na makrofage (49) kao i IL-10. Me utim, kako je receptor za ovaj citokin (TGF-βR) eksprimovan na ve}em broju }elija u odnosu na IL-10R, ~ija je ekspresija ograni~ena na }elije mijelo-monocitne loze, to ~ini TGF-β1 efikasnijim citokinom u inhibiciji specifi~ne imunske reakcije. Na mi{jem modelu je potvr eno da u toku latentne tuberkuloze u plu}ima MT persistiraju kao Ìuspavani bacili. Imunolo{ki posmatrano ovo ipak predstavlja stanje dinamske ravnote`e (sl. 3). MT antigeni su kontinuirano prisutni aktivacija CD4+ T-limfocita IFN-gama T-ćelijska zona makrofagna zona zona kazeozne nekroze IL-10 TGF-beta1 deaktivacija makrofaga povećana koncentracija MT antigena smanjenje koncentracije MT antigena Sl. 3 Mehanizam latentne tuberkulozne infekcije. IL-10 interleukin-10; IFN-gama interferon gama, TGF-beta1 faktor transformacije rasta-beta 1. Modifikovano prema: Murray PJ (31). Liza inficiranih makrofaga je potrebna kada su oni nepotpuno aktivisani, te zbog toga ne mogu efikasno uni{titi fagocitovane MT. Perforin je granulirani protein koji stvara pukotine u membrani ciljnih }elija (MT inficirani makrofagi) dovode}i do osmotske lize ciljnih }elija, a samim tim i do eliminacije MT. Istaknuto je ve} da fagosomi makrofaga inficirani MT sti~u pore ~ija veli~ina dozvoljava prolazak velikih molekula, {to omogu}ava granzimu, drugom citoliti~nom proteinu kojeg sekretuju CD8+ T limfociti, ulaz u citoplazmu i fagozom inficiranih makrofaga, gde vr{i lizu MT. Ipak, da ovo nije i najzna~ajniji na~in delovanja citoliti~nih T limfocita u eliminaciji MT potvr uju rezultati istra- `ivanja na perforin knock-out mi{evima koji su imali samo neznatno oslabljenu imunsku reakciju na MT u odnosu na divlji soj (43, 44). Mehanizam izazivanja apoptoze MT inficiranih makrofaga posredstvom CD8+ T limfocita pokazan je nedavno (34). Ovaj mehanizam uklju~uje interakciju Fas-FasL kojom se aktiviraju cistein-proteaze i pokre}e enzimski sistem odgovoran za programiranu }elijsku smrt, dovode}i do lize ili osloba anja MT u van}elijski prostor, {to omogu}ava njihovu fagocitozu posredstvom drugih, ja~e aktivisanih makrofaga. Mi{ljenje da nijedan mehanizam CD8+ T limfocita nije samostalno dovoljan za kontrolu tuberkuloze je op{te prihva- }eno, s tim {to se veruje da ipak najva`niji doprinos eliminaciji MT CD8+ T limfociti obezbe uju produkcijom dovoljne koli~ine IFN-γ, zajedno sa CD4+ T limfocitima (45 47). Nishodna regulacija funkcije makrofaga mehanizam latence kod tuberkuloze Nakon nestanka stimulusa (antigena) koji je izazvao imunski odgovor aktiviraju se modulatorni mehanizmi koji na povr{ini makrofaga i predstavljeni T limfocitima, {to uslovljava stvaranje pula memorijskih }elija. Ipak, usled ranije spomenutog procesa sticanja rezistencije stalno opstaje izvestan broj `ivih MT u makrofagima (nemogu}nost potpune eradikacije). Kada se pove}a broj MT, aktiviraju se memorijski Th-1 limfociti koji sekretuju IFN-γ, ~ime se ponovo smanjuje koncentracija MT. Smanjenje antigena dovodi do inhibicije imunske reakcije sekrecijom IL-10 i TGF-

6 Strana 314 VOJNOSANITETSKI PREGLED Broj 3 β1 koji povratnim putem suprimiraju makrofage i T limfocite. Na ovaj na~in ciklus aktivacije i deaktivacije makrofaga i T limfocita se stalno ponavlja u granulomu, zbog ~ega mali broj MT persistera pre`ivljava i predstavlja potencijalni fokus diseminacije bacila u slu~aju poreme}aja ove ravnote`e. Povi{ene vrednosti TGF-β1 u serumu bolesnika sa aktivnom tuberkulozom potvr uju opisani mehanizam latence, kao i ote`ana eliminacija MT u ranoj fazi infekcije u IL-10 transgenih mi{eva. Ipak, klju~no pitanje zbog ~ega imunski sistem nije u mogu}nosti da potpuno elimini{e MT i dalje ostaje nerazja{njeno. Jedno od mogu}ih obja{njenja je da je MT tokom svoje evolucije razvio superiornije mehanizme pre`ivljavanja od onih koje je ~ovek stekao za njegovu eliminaciju. Ovo omogu}ava genom MT, koji predstavlja najizazovnije i verovatno najva- `nije podru~je budu}ih istra`ivanja u prou~avanju imunskog odgovora kod tuberkuloze. U kontroli tuberkuloze najva`nija uloga pripada IFN- -γ, citokinu sa imunomodulatornim dejstvom, koji poja~ava aktivaciju MT inficiranih makrofaga. Na taj na~in se samo delimi~no elimini{u fagocitovani MT, dok izvestan broj bacila stalno opstaje u vakuolama makrofaga u Ìuspavanom stanju. Time inficirane osobe postaju do`ivotni nosioci latentne infekcije sa potencijalom ka reaktivaciji i klini~kim ispoljavanjem simptoma i znakova aktivne tuberkuloze u stanjima oslabljene celularne imunske reakcije. Potpuna eradikacija MT iz vakuola inficiranih makrofaga nije mogu- }a s obzirom da MT poseduje brojne, mo}ne mehanizme koji mu omogu}avaju spre~avanje ili izbegavanje imunske reakcije doma}ina. Zbog toga se velika nada pola`e u stvaranje nove DNK vakcine koja bi trebalo da obezbedi dugotrajnu za{titu od tuberkuloze. Zahvalnost Autori se zahvaljuju docentu dr Iliji Tomi}u iz Klinike za plu}ne bolesti VMA, Beograd i dr Aleksandru Duji}u iz Instituta za medicinska istra`ivanja VMA, Beograd na vrednim sugestijama tokom pripreme rada. LITERATURA 1. Raviglione MC, Dye C, Schmidt S, Kochi A. Assessment of world wide tuberculosis control. WHO Global Surveilance and Monitoring Project. Lancet 1997; 350: : Kochi A, Vareldzis B, Styblo K. Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis and its control. 1993; 144: Huebner RE. BCG vaccination in the control of tuberculosis. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1996; 215: : Strunk RC, Eidlen DM, Mason RJ. Pulmonary alveolar type II epithelial cells synthesize and secrete proteins of the classical and alternative complement pathways. J Clin Invest 1988; 81: McPhaden AR, Whaley K. Complement biosynthesis by mononuclear phagocytes. Immunol Res 1993; 12: : Ramanathan VD, Curtis J, Turk JL. Activation of the alternative pathway of complement by mycobacteria and cord factor. Infect Immun 1980; 29: Polotsky VY, Belisle JT, Mikusova K, Ezekowitz RA, Joiner KA. Interaction of human mannose-binding protein with Mycobacterium avium. J Infect Dis 1997; 175: Hoppe HC, de Wet BJ, Cywes C, Daffe M, Ehlers MR. Identification of phosphatidylinositol mannoside as a mycobacterial adhesin mediating both direct and opsonic binding to nonphagocytic mammalian cells. Infect Immun 1997; 65: Matsushita M, Fujita T. The lectin pathway. Res Immunol 1996; 147: Schorey JS, Carroll MC, Brown EJ. A macrophage invasion mechanism of pathogenic mycobacteria. Science 1997; 277: Thornton BP, Vetvicka V, Pitman M, Goldman RC, Ross GD. Analysis of the sugar specificity and molecular location of the beta-glucan-binding lectin site of complement receptor type 3 (CD11b/CD18). J Immunol 1996; 156: Sutterwala FS, Noel GJ, Clynes R, Mosser DM. Selective suppression of interleukin-12 induction after macrophage receptor ligation. J Exp Med 1997; 185: : Marth T, Kelsall BL. Regulation of interleukin-12 by complement receptor 3 signaling. J Exp Med 1997; 185: Peterson PK, Gekker G, Hu S, Sheng WS, Anderson WR, Ulevitch RJ, et al. CD14 receptor-mediated uptake of nonopsonized Mycobacterium tuberculosis by human microglia. Infect Immun 1995; 63: Brightbill HD, Libraty DH, Krutzik SR, Yang RB, Belisle JT, Bleharski JR, et al. Host defense mechanism triggered by microbial lipoproteins through toll-like receptors. Science 1999; 285: Deller MC Yvonne, Jones E. Cell surface receptors. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2000; 10: Schlesinger LS. Mycobacterium tuberculosis and the complement system. Trends Microbiol 1998; 62: Clemens DL, Lee BY, Horwitz MA. Deviant expression of Rab5 on phagosomes containing the intracellular pathogens Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Legionella

7 Broj 3 VOJNOSANITETSKI PREGLED Strana 315 pneumophila is associated with altered phagosomal fate. Infect Immun 2000; 68: Kaplan G, Freedman VH, Russell D, Colston MJ. Tuberculosis research comes of age. Keystone symposium on Tuberculosis; Molecular Mechanisms and Immunologic Aspects. Mol Med Today 1998: Teitelbaum R, Cammer M, Maitland ML, Freitag NE, Condeelis J, Bloom BR. Mycobacterial infection of macrophages results in membrane-permeable phagosomes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999; 96: : McKinney JD, Honer zu Bentrup K, Munoz-Elias EJ, Miczak A, Chen B, Chan WT, et al. Persistence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in macrophages and mice requires the glyoxylate shunt enzyme isocitrate lyase. Nature 2000; 406: Ting LM, Kim AC, Cattamanchi A, Ernst JD. Mycobacterium tuberculosis inhibits IFN-gamma transcriptional responses without inhibiting activation of STAT1. J Immunol 1999; 163: Cole ST, Brosch R, Parkhill J, Garnier T, Churcher C, Harris D, et al. Deciphering the biology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from the complete genome sequence. Nature 1998; 393: Cooper AM, Flynn JL. The protective immune response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Curr Opin Immunol 1995; 7: DiTirro J, Rhoades ER, Roberts AD, Burke JM, Mukasa A, Cooper AM, et al. Disruption of the cellular inflammatory response to Listeria monocytogenes infection in mice with disruptions in targeted genes. Infect Immun 1998; 66: Porcelli S, Morita CT, Brenner MB. CD1b restricts the response of human CD4-8- T lymphocytes to a microbial antigen. Nature 1992; 360: Beckman EM, Porcelli A, Morita CT, Behar SM, Furlong ST, Brenner MB. Recognition of a lipid antigen by CD1-restricted αβ-t cells. Nature 1994; 372: Rosat JP, Grant EP, Beckman EM, Dascher CC, Sieling PA, Frederique D, et al. CD1-restricted microbial lipid antigen-specific recognition found in the CD8+ αβ-t cell pool. J Immunol 1999; 162: Yoneda T, Ellner JJ. CD4(+) T cell and natural killer cell-dependent killing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by human monocytes. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 158: D'Souza CD, Cooper AM, Frank AA, Mazzaccaro RJ, Bloom BR, Orme IM. An anti-inflammatory role for gamma delta T lymphocytes in acquired immunity to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J Immunol 1997; 158: Murray PJ. Desining the requirements for immunological control of Mycobacterial infections: Trends Microbiol 1998; 7: MacMicking J, Xie QU, Nathan C. Nitric oxide and macrophage function. Annu Rev Immunol 1997; 15: : Murray PJ, Young RA, Daley GQ. Hematopoietic remodeling in interferon-gamma-deficient mice infected with mycobacteria. Blood 1998; 91: Aston C, Rom WN, Talbot AT, Reibman J. Early inhibition of mycobacterial growth by human alveolar macrophages is not due to nitric oxide. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 157: Bonecini-Almeida MG, Chitale S, Boutsikakis I, Geng J, Doo H, He S, et al. Induction of in vitro human macrophage anti-mycobacterium tuberculosis activity: requirement for IFN-gamma and primed lymphocytes. J Immunol 1998; 160: Xie QW, Kashiwabara Y, Nathan C. Role of transcription factor NF-kappa B/Rel in induction of nitric oxide synthase. J Biol Chem 1994; 269: Flynn JL, Ernst JD. Immune responses in tuberculosis. Curr Opin Immunol 2000; 12: Richmond A, Kaempfer R. Cytokine revisited at Hilton Head. Cytokines Growth Factor Rev 2000; 11: Ottenhoff THM, Kumararatne D, Casanova JL. Novel human immunodeficiencies reveal the essential role of type-i cytokines in immunity to intracellular bacteria. Immunol Today 1998; 19: Orme IM, Cooper AM. Cytokine/chemokine cascades in immunity to tuberculosis. Immunol Today 1999; 20: : Gurunathan S, Wu C, Freidag BL, Seder RA. DNA vaccines: a key for inducing long-term cellular immunity. Curr Opin Immunol 2000; 12: Stenger S, Mazzaccaro R, Uyemura K, Cho S, Bames PF, Rosat JP, et al. Differential effects of cytolytic T cell subsets on intracellular infection. Science 1997; 276: : Laochumroonvorapong P, Wang J, Liu CC, Ye W, Moreira AL, Elkon KB, et al. Perforin, a cytotoxic molecule which mediates cell necrosis, is not required for the early control of mycobacterial infection in mice. Infect Immun 1997; 65: Cooper AM, D'Souza C, Fran AA, Orme IM. The course of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in the lungs of mice lacking expression of either perforin- or granzyme mediated cytolytic mechanisms. Infect Immun 1997; 65: Sousa AO, Mazzaccaro RJ, Russell RG, Lee FK, Turner OC, Hong S, et al. Relative contributions of distinct MHC class I-dependent cell populations in protection to tuberculosis infection in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000; 97: Tascon RE, Stavropoulos E, Lukacs KV, Colston MJ. Protection against Mycobacterium tuberculosis

8 Strana 316 VOJNOSANITETSKI PREGLED Broj 3 infection by CD8(+) T cells requires the production of gamma interferon. Infect Immun 1998; 66: Serbina NV, Flynn JL. Early emergence of CD8(+) T cells primed for production of type 1 cytokines in the lungs of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infected mice. Infect Immun 1999; 67: Murray PJ, Wang L, Onufryk C, Tepper RI, Young RA. T cell-derived IL-10 antagonizes macrophage function in mycobacterial infection. J Immunol 1997; 158: Toossi Z, Ellner JJ. The role of TGF beta in the pathogenesis of human tuberculosis. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 1998; 87: Rad je primljen 27. II god.

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