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17 Jane Goodall and Her Discoveries About Chimpanzees Part I By Michael Morrissey, Ph.D. People have long known that gorillas, orangutans, and chimpanzees the great apes were the most human-like animals in the animal kingdom. However, until recent years, there was no real understanding of apes day-to-day existence in their natural environment. Today, our scientific knowledge of apes and other animals in the wild is vast, thanks to scientists who conduct field research in the distant forests of the world. Our knowledge of chimpanzees the most human-like animal of all is due almost completely to the pioneering work of the famous British scientist, Jane Goodall. Jane Goodall s fame rests largely on her study of the social and family life of chimpanzees in Africa, which began in 1960 and has continued now for almost fifty years. Goodall s field studies of chimpanzees at the Gombe Stream National Park in Tanzania have proven more successful than anyone could have imagined. As a result of her breakthrough research, Goodall is regarded as one of the most important scientists of the twentieth century. Who is this remarkable woman, and how did her discoveries revolutionize our understanding not only of chimpanzees, but of human nature itself? Early Life Jane Goodall was born in 1934 in London, England. Growing up in England, Jane loved exploring the outdoors and observing the creatures she discovered there. When she was four, she hid in a hen house all day to see how a hen lays an egg. Her favorite books included The Story of Dr. Dolittle, The Jungle Books, and the Tarzan stories. Enthralled by the mystique of the jungle, Jane knew as a child what she wanted to do with her life. I vowed that I would go to Africa, she said, live among the animals, and write books about them. When Jane came of age, she attended secretarial school instead of college. A friend from school invited her to Kenya to visit her family s farm. Jane worked to save money for the trip, and eventually boarded a ship that took her to Africa. After a three-week, 9,000-mile voyage, she finally arrived in Kenya in 1957, on her twenty-third birthday.

18 To support herself, Jane got a secretarial job in Nairobi, the capital and largest city in Kenya. Soon after, she heard that Dr. Louis Leakey, the famous anthropologist and paleontologist, was the curator of Nairobi s natural history museum. Jane made a point of meeting Leakey, who recognized her enthusiasm and great potential. He hired her as his secretary and then, a couple of months later, as his assistant on a fossil-hunting expedition. In due time, Leakey realized Jane was just the person he needed to assist in a study of apes he wished to conduct. He believed there was much more to all the great apes than we knew, because at the time no successful field study of them had been conducted. He wanted someone like Jane, who, without any official training in the field, could offer an unbiased perspective. This was Jane Goodall s big break in life, the beginning of her long relationship with chimpanzees. Discoveries at Gombe In July of 1960, Jane Goodall arrived at the Gombe Stream National Park, along the eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika, in Tanzania. At first, things did not go smoothly at Gombe. Goodall came down with malaria, which left her with a high fever and depleted energy. Her study of the chimps did not go well, either, as they always fled when she got near. However, she was determined to gain their trust and to help them overcome their fear of a strange human in their midst. For many weeks, Goodall watched from a distance. Gradually the chimps allowed her to approach them, but it took them months before they would accept her as a regular presence in their lives. Once accepted, Goodall embarked on a form of research that had never before been attempted. She lived among the creatures she was studying, in order to observe their natural behavior. This was something that could not be done in a laboratory or zoo, where animals are removed from their natural habitat and held in captivity. Louis Leakey thought it would take years to accumulate enough data about chimpanzee behavior to draw accurate conclusions. As it turned out, it took only a few months for Goodall to make her first important discoveries. What she discovered was that chimpanzees are more like humans than anyone originally suspected. This revelation was only possible because

19 Goodall grew quite close to the chimps and was able to observe them up close. Her gentle manner and empathetic approach allowed the chimps to accept her almost as one of their own. They even greeted her as they did each other, with a touch or a kiss. Goodall s first great discovery occurred one day while she was observing a male chimp in a tree with a pink object in his hand. This was an older, dominant chimp that she named David Greybeard. Two female chimps were on the ground below with their arms outstretched, as if begging. The pink object turned out to be a baby bushpig. David Greybeard was eating meat. Chimpanzees had never before been recorded as eating meat. It turns out that chimps are omnivores, just like humans. They eat vegetables, insects, birds eggs and fledglings, and meat. Goodall soon discovered that chimpanzees actually hunt several kinds of animals, including bushbucks, bushpigs, baboons, and monkeys. Goodall s next great discovery occurred only a few weeks later. She observed David Greybeard digging in a termite mound, using a twig as a tool. He had selected a particular twig and peeled it to the shape of his liking. He then stuck the twig into the mound and brought it to his mouth to eat the termites he had caught. This was the first recorded instance of tool making and use in non-humans. Until that moment, all anthropologists relied on the standard definition of the human: Man the Toolmaker. That is, it was assumed that only human beings make and use tools. When Goodall sent word of her discovery to Leakey, he wrote back saying Now we must redefine tool, redefine Man, or accept chimpanzees as humans. Leakey s words proved prophetic: this discovery, and Goodall s many others, have illuminated man s similarity to the great apes, and caused us to rethink what it means to be human. Goodall eventually observed the Gombe chimps regularly creating termite-fishing twigs, as well as other tools. Even more interesting, the chimps did so in advance of their need for these tools. For example, Goodall observed chimps preparing tools for use on a termite mound that was several hundred yards away and completely out of sight. This demonstrated that, unlike most animals, chimpanzees can remember past experiences and plan for the future. Prior to Goodall s research, scientists believed that only humans were able to consider needs outside of their present situation. David Greybeard s creative tool use also demonstrated that chimpanzees, like humans, are able to invent fresh ways to approach everyday tasks. Chimps are not born knowing how

20 to use particular objects as tools. Rather, when they are faced with a problem, such as the need to gain access to food, they are able to come up with creative solutions. Chimps then pass on successful tool-using techniques from one generation to the next through observation, imitation, and practice. In this way, each chimpanzee group develops its own unique toolusing customs. For example, chimps in Western Africa use rocks to break open nuts, and other chimps have been observed creating spears to hunt small mammals. Neither behavior has been observed in the Gombe chimps. Just as humans in different parts of the world have different customs and cultural practices, Goodall theorized and later proved that each chimpanzee population creates, over time, a tool-using culture all its own. A New Approach to Ethology In 1965, Goodall received her Ph.D. in ethology from Cambridge University. She was reluctant to obtain academic credentials, but Louis Leakey thought it was important that she do so in order to gain credibility. Goodall s time at Cambridge came as a great challenge, however, not least because it took her away from the chimpanzees she loved. She also found herself in conflict with other scientists over the legitimacy of her research methods, which ran counter to the traditional methods of ethology. The term ethology was coined in the year 1911 by Oskar Heinroth, a director at the Berlin Zoological Gardens. Heinroth defined ethology as a scientific study of animal behavior that operates through comparative methods. He believed that the unique behaviors that characterize any species of animal are as fixed and distinctive as anatomical features. Therefore, they can be objectively compared and contrasted between species, just as one would do with animal anatomy. Heinroth emphasized rigorous, objective methods of data collection. This meant making thorough, repeated, and direct observations of animal behavior from a detached perspective. The data that was collected must then be analyzed in a way that would reduce any bias on the part of the observer. Also, ethology was to focus on the general behavior of a species as a whole, not on the particular behaviors of individuals within the species. When Goodall began her research at Gombe in 1960, it was not permissible in ethological circles to talk about an animal s mind only humans had minds. Neither was it acceptable to speak of an animal s personality or to discuss animal behavior in terms of motivation or purpose. At the time, Goodall, who did not have an undergraduate science

21 education, did not know this. She just presumed that animals had personalities and could think, and that they could feel emotions, such as being happy, sad, fearful, angry, bored, or jealous, just like humans. She also believed they were often motivated to fulfill some purpose or planned goal. Goodall thought even an inexperienced observer could understand what was going on in a chimp when it displayed emotional states. For example, a young chimp doing somersaults around his mother, tumbling into her lap, and then pulling on her hand in a request to be tickled was clearly happy and carefree. An adult male who glared at other chimps while threatening them with gestures if they came too close was obviously feeling grumpy and cross. According to Goodall, in fact, only empathy and intuition can allow one to interpret the meaning of the complex behaviors that chimpanzees display. Goodall defied ethological convention by naming each of the chimps she studied, when the convention was to number them. She also focused on the behavior of individual chimps, as a way to understand the species as a whole. Goodall was drawn to the mystery of individual chimp behavior, which she believed demanded an intuitive interpretation. As she said years later, explaining why she named the chimps she studied, I was learning from them, not only about them. Her method marked a radical turn in ethology because it acknowledged the possibility that, like humans, some animals may possess individuality and personality. By the time Goodall arrived at Cambridge, she was already the world s foremost expert on chimpanzees, due to her field work at Gombe. All she had to do to complete her degree was to write her thesis. Unfortunately, Goodall s empathy made many of her colleagues suspicious of her research, which they did not consider to be rigorously scientific. Robert Hinde, her advisor, told her she would have to eliminate her anthropomorphic language and include more quantitative data, in order to have her thesis accepted. (Anthropomorphic descriptions use human characteristics to describe something non-human.) Goodall s anthropomorphic descriptions of chimp behavior clearly defied scientific convention, but she would do her work no other way. She was convinced that chimpanzees have unique personalities and human-like emotions, and possess cognitive abilities not unlike those of humans. Goodall felt that to deny these qualities in chimpanzees was naïve and close-minded, so she submitted her thesis as written. Hinde and the other committee members

22 were forced to acknowledge the value of Goodall s work. In spite of their objections, they approved her thesis. It took courage to stand up to the scientific authorities of her time. Goodall s pioneering empathetic method greatly contributed to her amazing discoveries and revolutionized the study of animal behavior. The Mother-Child Bond in Chimpanzees Thanks to her radical approach, Goodall learned a great deal about chimpanzee family relationships that would have remained obscure if she had stuck to traditional ethological methods. Chimpanzees undergo the same life cycle as humans: from infancy through childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. Because chimps live 40 to 60 years in the wild, Goodall s research at Gombe was necessarily a long-term project. Over the last few decades, she has followed individual chimps throughout their life cycle. This has yielded an unprecedented wealth of information for researchers in the field. One of the most fascinating and significant facts about chimpanzees that emerged from the long-term research at Gombe was that the period of dependence on the mother is much longer than for other animals. A young chimp travels on his mother s back, sleeps with her, and nurses until he is between four and six years old. He does not begin to separate from his mother until he is about six, and does not travel on his own until the age of nine, and then only for short periods. He frequently returns to travel with his mother until he is fully mature, at the age of fifteen. A young female chimp will stay with her mother even longer. Throughout their lives, both genders maintain a close attachment to their mothers. The mother-offspring bond is the most stable social unit among chimpanzees. The female chimp bears a child only about every 5 years, which permits her to develop a close relationship with each child. The chimpanzee mother shares food with her offspring, sometimes into adulthood. She is continuously gentle, affectionate, and protective of her child. For example, when a chimpanzee child begins to walk and climb trees at about six months old, the mother will stay near to help him down from branches that are too weak to support him. The extended time young chimps have under the protection of their mothers leaves them with more leisure time to play, to explore their environment, and to experiment with innovative behaviors.

23 This sustained dependency also has its negative side. Because the mother-child bond is so strong, its disruption can be disturbing. Goodall observed many young chimps traumatized by weaning or by the birth of a sibling. They showed their displeasure through tantrums. Some even withdrew into self-imposed isolation for long periods, sitting huddled and depressed. The intensity of the mother-child relationship is one of the striking characteristics that chimpanzees share with humans. Today, scientists recognize that chimpanzees are more like humans than any other living creature. In fact, genetic research has shown that chimps share almost 99% of human DNA. Yet without Jane Goodall s research, scientists might never have discovered the dramatic similarities between chimpanzee behavior and our own. Through her radical approach, Goodall has revolutionized our understanding of chimpanzees and illuminated the connection between human beings and the rest of the animal kingdom.

24 Jane Goodall and Her Discoveries about Chimpanzees Part II By Michael Morrissey, Ph.D. At the beginning of the twentieth century, chimpanzees remained very much a mystery to humans. Early twentieth century studies of chimpanzees were based mostly on laboratory research that focused on learning about chimps intelligence and problem-solving abilities. Observation of chimpanzees in the wild was intermittent and short term. This all changed with Jane Goodall s research at Gombe. She was the first scientist to live among the chimpanzees and observe them over a period of many years. Goodall got in close to the animals she studied and observed them over long periods of time. Because of her dedication, empathy, and thoroughness, she was able to see chimps as they really are. Chimpanzee Aggression Goodall long thought that chimpanzees were a relatively peaceful species. She was deeply disturbed when she discovered that, like humans, they have a dark side to their nature. Perhaps her most startling discovery at Gombe was the extent to which chimpanzees engage in some very aggressive behaviors. The first indication of this occurred when Goodall found that dominant female chimps sometimes kill the young of other females in an effort to maintain their dominance. Dominance in chimp society is a reflection of a chimp s position in the social hierarchy. For example, chimpanzees spend a great deal of time grooming one another. Who gets groomed first depends on rank, starting from dominant females all the way down to babies. Rank in chimp society is signaled by vocalizations, which include at least fifteen distinct calls. Higher-ranking chimps use their vocalizations to get better access to food, which translates into increased survival of their young. Often, dominant vocalizations are enough for a foraging party to acquire food for their group in the presence of rivals, or for a mother to acquire food for herself and her young on a solo hunt. When food is scarce and competition is fierce, rivals will sometimes engage in brutal attacks. Many times, Goodall observed males brutally attacking strange females with infants when the females encroached on their territory. Females, especially those carrying their young, posed little danger to the attacking males. It is likely that males attack in these circumstances

25 because successful aggression against chimpanzees from another group increases the likelihood that one s own group and offspring will survive. Though Goodall found this aggressive behavior among chimpanzees disturbing enough, in 1974 she started to observe something even more violent. That year saw the beginning of the four-year war at Gombe, when neighboring communities of chimpanzees fought in a war-like frenzy over food and territory. The relationship between the males of these groups became increasingly hostile, and they would hurl noisy insults at their rivals when they encountered each other. After a period of this aggressive taunting behavior, violence broke out. From 1974 to 1977, at least five different brutal assaults occurred, leaving a number of chimps dead. Goodall had long known that chimpanzees fight and wound one another from time to time. Not until this dark period in Gombe s history, however, did her fundamental perspective regarding chimpanzee social relations change. It took her many years to accept the reality of chimpanzee aggression. A deep-rooted aggressive tendency is part of their nature, as it is in many animal species that must fight for survival. Chimpanzee Altruism In spite of their violent tendencies, Goodall was consoled by the fact that chimpanzees peaceful interactions are far more frequent than their aggressive ones. Goodall recorded a rich repertoire of behaviors that allow chimps to maintain harmony and fellowship. Based on her many years among the Gombe chimps, she concluded that, on the whole, the qualities of compassion, care, and self-sacrifice outweigh those of hatred and aggression. Among chimpanzees, altruism, the regard for the interests and well-being of others, can be quite remarkable. Examples of chimpanzee caring behavior are numerous. For instance, after a period of separation, chimps embrace, kiss, pat, and hold hands to greet each other. Dominant chimps use these same gestures to reassure their subordinates after a display of aggression. Chimps engage in long, peaceful sessions of social grooming that express care and companionship. They will care for the sick and wounded within their own families. Goodall observed chimps

26 cleaning others wounds and keeping flies away. She even observed a young female regularly cleaning her companion s teeth with twigs, and later performing a couple of extractions on loose teeth. Goodall frequently observed food-sharing among chimps, particularly among family groups. This sharing occurred most often with meat, when a possessor responded to an outstretched hand and tore off a piece for a whimpering beggar. Some scientists view this food sharing behavior not as altruistic, but simply as a means of getting rid of an irritating beggar. After all, hungry chimps can be persistent to the point of a noisy tantrum. But Goodall noticed that chimps did not move away to avoid this annoyance, and were actually quite tolerant of beggars. Goodall was particularly struck the time she observed an ill, elderly chimp, Mother Bee, being fed by her daughter. Because it was an unusually dry summer at Gombe, the chimps had to travel long distances from one food source to another. Too tired and weak to climb a tree to acquire food, Mother Bee simply lay below. Her daughter, Little Bee, climbed the tree and fed herself and then climbed down and placed food in front of Mother Bee. The two sat side by side, eating together. It was an act of voluntary giving that demonstrated an understanding of her mother s need. Goodall observed similar behavior on several occasions. Chimps will also help companions in distress. More than once, Goodall saw chimps risk their lives to save other chimpanzees captured by pigs or baboons during hunts. This self-sacrificial behavior has even been observed in zoos where chimpanzees are kept separate from other species. Some zoos keep their chimpanzee community on islands surrounded by water-filled moats. Chimpanzees cannot swim and will drown if they fall into the water. Some chimps have been observed making heroic efforts to save companions. One chimp even lost his life trying to rescue an infant who had fallen into the water. Scientists debate whether altruistic behavior among chimps is a sign of genuine love and compassion or whether it is simply a matter of instinct. What is clear is that both aggressive and caring behaviors serve the long-term interests of the species. The offspring of the most caring and supportive mothers thrive and become good mothers, themselves producing many offspring. Youngsters less cared for have a lower chance of survival. They become relatively poor mothers themselves, and are less likely to produce large families.

27 Nurturing traits compete with more selfish ones and, on balance, promote the success of the species as a whole. Language Acquisition Goodall and her associates have observed many instances of intelligent, rational chimp behavior during their decades of field research. These examples help us make sense of studies of chimpanzees conducted in the laboratory by other scientists. Though laboratories are not conducive to studies of chimp social behavior, they are excellent environments for assessing their intellectual skills and sensory reflexes. In fact, laboratory scientists have collected a wealth of data on chimpanzees cognitive abilities. The most interesting experiments with lab chimps have to do with language acquisition. In the mid-1940s, Richard and Cathy Hayes, a husband and wife team, tried to teach a young chimp named Vikki to talk. Their undertaking was a failure, but did reveal a lot about the chimpanzee mind. Vikki could not learn human language. As it turns out, chimpanzees do not have the physical ability to speak words; because of the structure of their larynx, they can only utter sounds like screams and grunts. However, Vicki did well on IQ tests, and chimps can be easily trained to perform simple timed tasks like pushing a lever after seeing a flashing blue light. In the mid-1960s, Allen and Beatrice Gardner conducted another famous chimp experiment, called Project Washoe. They obtained an infant chimp and taught her American Sign Language (ASL), a language based upon hand signals and used by the deaf. The Gardners achieved spectacular success with their pupil, Washoe the first non-human to learn a human language. She easily learned signs for actions, objects, and abstract concepts like more, and was able to link these signs with the objects and actions they represented. For example, when she was asked in sign language to fetch an apple, Washoe would go and find an apple located in another room. Washoe was even able to string signs together in meaningful and sometimes creative ways. For example, she would refer to a refrigerator by signing OPEN FOOD DRINK, though the Gardners would always call it COLD BOX. Later, the Gardners discovered that chimps can even invent signs. One chimp, Lucy, had to wear a leash for her outings. She had no sign for leash, so one day, eager to set off, she held her crooked index finger by the ring of her collar. The sign became part of her vocabulary.

28 As a part of Project Washoe, the Gardners also raised an infant, Loulis, who was given no lessons in sign language. Yet by the time he was eight years old, Loulis had learned fiftyeight signs in their correct context. How was this possible? The Gardners concluded that he learned them by imitating Washoe and other chimps that had been taught ASL. Loulis also received some instruction from Washoe herself. One day Washoe saw a human approach with a bar of chocolate and began excitedly signing food! food! (fingers pointing toward mouth) as Loulis watched. Then Washoe went over to Loulis, took his hand, and repeated the sign for food by pointing his fingers toward his mouth. Another time she made the sign for chewing gum, using her own hand on his body. Both signs became part of Loulis s vocabulary. This research inspired other experiments in language-acquisition, by skeptics and supporters alike. The results confirmed that chimpanzee minds work much like human minds. For example, chimpanzees are capable of cross-modal transfer of information. This means they can recognize with their eyes what they feel with their fingers. For example, if you close your eyes and feel a strangely shaped potato, you will subsequently be able to pick it out from other differently shaped potatoes just by looking at it. It was later proved that chimpanzees can even recognize themselves in mirrors. Washoe herself demonstrated this ability when she identified herself in a mirror by giving the sign for her name while staring at her image. Spots of paint were dabbed on chimpanzee s ears or foreheads while they were asleep. When they awoke, they were fascinated by their spotted images. They began to investigate with their fingers the spots of paint on their ears and foreheads that they could only see in a mirror. This demonstrated that chimps have some kind of self-concept. Related research continues today, producing some startling discoveries. Recently, it was reported that researchers from Duke University found that monkeys can perform mental addition as well as some university students. This research followed a finding by Japanese researchers that young chimpanzees performed better than human adults at a memory game. What Makes Us Human? With all of the discoveries made by Goodall and her fellow ethologists, we are led to ponder the relationship between humans and chimpanzees, and, indeed, the relationship between humans and all animals. We now know that humans share with chimpanzees a number of common traits. These include enduring and affectionate family bonds, a long period of childhood dependency, the capacity for complex communication, the process of learning,

29 tool making and using, sophisticated social interactions, and cooperation in protecting territory and acquiring and sharing food. A variety of other behaviors, both altruistic and aggressive, could be cited as well. Given the similarity of our biological makeup and social behavior, we are led to ask what exactly differentiates humans from chimps and the rest of the animal kingdom? What defining characteristics do humans possess that chimpanzees and other apes do not? In other words, what is it that makes a human precisely human? This is a complex and involved question that human beings have long debated. It is a question that transcends the sphere of science. While pondering this question 2500 years ago, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared humans to be the rational animal. That is, humans possess reason, the faculty of mind that yields a heightened knowledge of oneself, others, and the world around us. Humans are concerned not only with immediate need-fulfillment, but also with the quest for truth and understanding. Human consciousness far surpasses that of even the most gifted apes. For Goodall, the most significant difference between humans and animals is the ability to communicate through the use of a sophisticated spoken language. It is language, both spoken and written, that allows humans to remember the distant past and plan for the far-off future. It has given us our capacity to build cities and civilizations, to wage war and preserve peace, and to produce art, literature, and science. Through language, we can strive to know and to love that which is not ourselves. We can seek the right way to live and search for the meaning of our existence. Words express thoughts and ideas that only humans can fashion in their minds and communicate to one another. Goodall writes that without a human-like language, chimpanzees are trapped within themselves. They can vocalize sounds, but they cannot talk. What human beings share with chimpanzees and other animals is what makes us part of the natural world. What differentiates human beings from even the most advanced of the apes, however, is the life of the mind. This includes our intelligence, our capacity for abstract thought, our curiosity, our creativity, our appreciation of beauty, and our awareness of good and evil. Only humans are capable of delayed gratification, of serving an end beyond themselves over a long period of time. Only humans can create the kind of culture that not only survives each generation but can grow and develop for the purpose of creating a better world.

30 It is this human capacity to pursue a life of meaning and purpose that Jane Goodall herself has displayed throughout her life as a researcher. Goodall s unrelenting passion and tireless quest for knowledge have given us a better understanding not only of the chimpanzee s place in nature but also man s place in nature. She has taught us that we are not separated from the rest of the animal kingdom by an unbridgeable chasm. We humans are indeed a part of nature, intimately connected with the world of animals. As Goodall argues, however, we have an obligation to fulfill the higher part of our nature. Jane Goodall Today As she has for five decades, Jane Goodall continues to write and lecture to this day. In 1977 she founded the Jane Goodall Institute to promote her work. Located in Ridgefield, Connecticut, the Institute sponsors ongoing field research in Africa. It also sponsors an educational program, called Roots & Shoots, designed to teach people about wild animals and environmental conservation. By the year 2000, Roots & Shoots comprised more than three thousand groups in sixty-seven countries around the world. Chapters have been organized in elementary and secondary schools, colleges and universities, prisons and senior centers. All are engaged in local projects to improve the well-being of animals, the environment, and the human community. Today, Goodall is professor-at-large at four American universities and devotes herself to chimpanzee conservation and research. She is a passionate campaigner against the use of chimpanzees for medical research. She travels the world giving speeches and raising money for her Chimpanzee Guardian Project, which supports the several chimpanzee refuges she has established in Africa. When not traveling, Goodall divides her time between her childhood home in Bournemouth, England, and Tanzania, where she returns frequently to her beloved chimps at Gombe. She is the recipient of many awards and prizes, celebrating not only her scientific research, but also her illustrious career as an inspiring conservationist and champion of animals. Jane Goodall has written many books about her experience with the chimpanzees of Tanzania, including Through a Window: 30 Years Observing the Gombe Chimps and In the Shadow of Man. If you are interested in learning more about Goodall s life and work, both books are highly recommended. You can also find out more about Goodall and her work by visiting the Jane Goodall Institute web site at

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