UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING

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1 UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING PHE 108: Physical Fitness Through Selected Activities (2 Units) Course Facilitator: 1

2 Course Code/ Title: Credit Units: Timing: STUDY GUIDE Total hours of Study per each course material should be twenty Six hours (26hrs) at two hours per week within a given semester. You should plan your time table for study on the basis of two hours per course throughout the week. This will apply to all course materials you have. This implies that each course material will be studied for two hours in a week. Similarly, each study session should be timed at one hour including all the activities under it. Do not rush on your time, utilize them adequately. All activities should be timed from five minutes (5mi nutes) to ten minutes (10minutes). Observe the time you spent for each activity, whether you may need to add or subtract more minutes for the activity. You should also take note of your speed of completing an activity for the purpose of adjustment. Meanwhile, you should observe the one hour allocated to a study session. Find out whether this time is adequate or not. You may need to add or subtract some minutes depending on your speed. You may also need to allocate separate time for your selfassessment questions out of the remaining minutes from the one hour or the one hour which was not used out of the two hours that 2

3 can be utilized for your SAQ. You must be careful in utilizing your time. Your success depends on good utilization of the time given; because time is money, do not waste it. Reading: When you start reading the study session, you must not read it like a novel. You should start by having a pen and paper for writing the main points in the study session. You must also have dictionary for checking terms and concepts that are not properly explained in the glossary. Before writing the main points you must use pencil to underline those main points in the text. Make the underlining neat and clear so that the book is not spoiled for further usage. Similarly, you should underline any term that you do not understand its meaning and check for their meaning in the glossary. If those meanings in the glossary are not enough for you, you can use your dictionary for further explanations. When you reach the box for activity, read the question(s) twice so that you are sure of what the question ask you to do then you go back to the in-text to locate the answers to the question. You must be brief in answering those activities except when the question requires you to be detailed. In the same way you read the in-text question and in-text answer carefully, making sure you understand them and locate them in the main text. Furthermore before you attempt answering the (SAQ) be 3

4 sure of what the question wants you to do, then locate the answers in your in-text carefully before you provide the answer. Generally, the reading required you to be very careful, paying attention to what you are reading, noting the major points and terms and concepts. But when you are tired, worried and weak do not go into reading, wait until you are relaxed and strong enough before you engage in reading activities. Bold Terms: These are terms that are very important towards comprehending/understanding the in-text read by you. The terms are bolded or made darker in the sentence for you to identify them. When you come across such terms check for the meaning at the back of your book; under the heading glossary. If the meaning is not clear to you, you can use your dictionary to get more clarifications about the term/concept. Do not neglect any of the bold term in your reading because they are essential tools for your understanding of the in-text. Practice Exercises a. Activity: Activity is provided in all the study sessions. Each activity is to remind you of the immediate facts, points and major informations you read in the in-text. In every study session there is one or more activities provided for you to answer them. You must be very careful in answering these activities because they provide you with major facts of the 4

5 text. You can have a separate note book for the activities which can serve as summary of the texts. Do not forget to timed yourself for each activity you answered. b. In-text Questions and Answers: In-text questions and answers are provided for you to remind you of major points or facts. To every question, there is answer. So please note all the questions and their answers, they will help you towards remembering the major points in your reading. c. Self Assessment Question: This part is one of the most essential components of your study. It is meant to test your understanding of what you studied so you must give adequate attention in answering them. The remaining time from the two hours allocated for this study session can be used in answering the self- assessment question. Before you start writing answers to any questions under SAQ, you are expected to write down the major points related to the particular question to be answered. Check those points you have written in the in-text to ascertain that they are correct, after that you can start explaining each point as your answer to the question. When you have completed the explanation of each question, you can now check at the back of your book, compare your answer to the solutions provided by your course writer. Then try to grade your effort sincerely and honestly to see your 5

6 level of performance. This procedure should be applied to all SAQ activities. Make sure you are not in a hurry to finish but careful to do the right thing. e-tutors: The etutors are dedicated online teachers that provide services to students in all their programme of studies. They are expected to be twenty- four hours online to receive and attend to students Academic and Administrative questions which are vital to student s processes of their studies. For each programme, there will be two or more e-tutors for effective attention to student s enquiries. Therefore, you are expected as a student to always contact your e- tutors through their addresses or phone numbers which are there in your student hand book. Do not hesitate or waste time in contacting your e-tutors when in doubt about your learning. You must learn how to operate , because ing will give you opportunity for getting better explanation at no cost. In addition to your e-tutors, you can also contact your course facilitators through their phone numbers and s which are also in your handbook for use. Your course facilitators can also resolve your academic problems. Please utilize them effectively for your studies. Continuous assessment The continuous assessment exercise is limited to 30% of the total marks. The medium of conducting continuous assessment may be 6

7 through online testing, Tutor Marked test or assignment. You may be required to submit your test or assignment through your . The continuous assessment may be conducted more than once. You must make sure you participate in all C.A processes for without doing your C.A you may not pass your examination, so take note and be up to date. Examination All examinations shall be conducted at the University of Maiduguri Centre for Distance Learning. Therefore all students must come to the Centre for a period of one week for their examinations. Your preparation for examination may require you to look for course mates so that you form a group studies. The grouping or Networking studies will facilitate your better understanding of what you studied. Group studies can be formed in villages and township as long as you have partners offering the same programme. Grouping and Social Networking are better approaches to effective studies. Please find your group. You must prepare very well before the examination week. You must engage in comprehensive studies. Revising your previous studies, making brief summaries of all materials you read or from your first summary on activities, in-text questions and answers, as well as on self assessment questions that you provided solutions at first stage of studies. When the examination week commences you 7

8 can also go through your brief summarizes each day for various the courses to remind you of main points. When coming to examination hall, there are certain materials that are prohibited for you to carry (i.e Bags, Cell phone, and any paper etc). You will be checked before you are allowed to enter the hall. You must also be well behaved throughout your examination period. 8

9 INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE 9

10 PHE 108: PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES UNITS: 2 T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S PAGES PREFACE iii HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT iv INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE STUDY SESSION: 1.DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL FITNESS, PHYSICAL ACTIVITES AND EXERCISE COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS PRINCIPLES AND PHASES OF TRAINING PROGRAMMES INTERVAL TRAINING WEIGHT TRAINING SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES 10

11 TOPIC 1: T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S PAGES 1.0 STUDY SESSION: DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL FITNESS, PHYSICAL ACTIVITES AND EXERCISE INTRODUCTION LEARNING OUTCOMES STUDY SESSION DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY SUMMARY SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES REFERENCES SUGGESTED READING

12 Study Session 1: DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL FITNESS, PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES AND EXERCISE INTRODUCTION: For quite sometimes, physical fitness has been defined in various ways. For example, during the first part of the twentieth century definition of physical fitness emphasized muscular strength; by the 1970s and 1980s definition of physical fitness centered on cardio-respiratory fitness through aerobic activities and exercises. As interest in physical fitness continues to be divergent, definition of physical fitness also continues to be divergent. Nowadays, definition of physical fitness focuses on attributes, which are important to health, such as cardio-respiratory endurance, muscularskeletal fitness (muscular strength, muscular endurance and flexibility), and body composition as well as other traits that are important to skill development (skill proficiency) such as coordination, agility, balance, speed and power. In this unit, contemporary definitions of physical fitness that focus on both attributes that are important to skill proficiency and health are outlined. Learning Outcomes: At the end of this Study Session, readers should be able to: 1.1 State at least three different definitions of physical fitness. 1.2 Identify the key concepts in the various definitions of Physical fitness. 1.3 Define physical activity and exercise. 1.1 DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY The United State Department of Health and Human Services (1996) defined physical activity as any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles, which results in energy expenditure. The energy expenditure can be measured in kilocalories (Kcal) or kilojoules (kj). A Kilocalorie is a unit of work or energy which is equal to the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogramme of water by one degree Celsius. One kilocalorie is equivalent to kilojoules. The Various ways of measuring physical activity can be classified into four general categories, namely calorimetry, physiological markers, mechanical and electronic motion detectors and occupation and electronic motion detectors occupation and leisure- time survey instruments. Calorimetry is direct heat exchange measure in an insulated chamber or suit or indirect measurement through measurement of oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production. Measurement of physical 12

13 activity through physiological markers involves heart rate monitoring and the use of doubly labeled detector water (DLW). Mechanical and electronic motion detectors as means of measuring physical activity requires the use of pedometers in- shoe step counters electronic motion sensors and accelerometers. Occupational and leisure time survey instruments that are used to measure physical activity include job classification, activity diaries or records and physical activity recall questionnaire. Human beings perform physical activity in order to sustain life. However, the amount of physical activity performed by individuals varies considerably from one person to another, based on personal lifestyles and other factors such as levels of physical fitness. Exercise is not synonymous with physical activity (United State Department of Health and Human services, 1996; Bouchard, Shephard and Stephens, 1994; Caspersen, Powell and Christenson 1985). Exercise is defined as physical activity that is planned, structured, repetitive and purposive, in the sense that improvement or maintenance of physical fitness is an objective. All conditioning and sports activities are considered exercise because they are performed to improve or maintain physical fitness. 1.2 DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL FITNESS The World Health Organization (1971) defined physical fitness as the ability to perform muscular work satisfactorily. During a workshop sponsored by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention, a group of experts defined physical fitness as a set of attributes that people have or achieve that relates to the ability to perform physical activity (Caspersen, Powell and Christenson, 1985). The American College of Sports Medicine (1990) viewed physical fitness as the ability to perform moderate to vigorous levels of physical activity without undue fatigue and capability of maintaining such ability throughout life. The President s Council on physical fitness and Sports (1991) defined physical fitness as the ability to carry out daily task with vigor and alertness, without undue fatigue and with ample energy to enjoy leisure- time pursuit and meet unforeseen emergencies. Clarke (1967) defined physical fitness as the ability to last, to bear up, to withstand stress, and persevere under difficult circumstances where an unfit person would give up. According to him physical fitness is the opposite of being fatigued from ordinary efforts, to lacking the energy to enter zestfully into life s activities and to becoming exhausted from unexpected, demanding physical exertion. He explained that physical fitness is a positive quality, extending on a scale from death to abundant life. A synthesis of these definitions of physical fitness would show that vigor and energy to perform work and exercise and sustain them are the key concepts in the definition of physical fitness. 13

14 ITQ: Define physical activity and exercise ITA: Physical activity is defined as any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles which results in energy expenditure, exercise planned, structured. SUMMARY In study session 1, you have learnt: The different definitions of physical fitness, the key concepts in the various definitions of physical fitness and physical activities and exercises. SELF -ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQS) for study session 1 SAQ 1. Define physical activity and exercise. SAQ 2. Explain why all conditioning and sports activities are considered exercises. SAQ 3. List any four general ways of measuring physical activities and exercises. SAQ 4. State any three definition of physical fitness. SAQ 5. Identify the key concepts in defining physical fitness. REFERENCES American College of Sports Medicine (1994). The recommended quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness in health, adults. Medicine and Sciences in sports and Exercise 22: Bouchard, C. Shephard, R. J and Stephens, T. (1994). Physical activity, fitness and health: International Proceedings and Consensus Statement. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Caspersen, C.J., Powell, K. E. and Christenson, G. M (1985). Physical activity, exercise and physical fitness: Definition and distinction for health related research. Public Health Report 100: Clarke, H. H. (1967). Application Of Measurement To Health And Physical Education. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice - Hall inc. President s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports (1971). Physical Fitness Research Digest (Series 1, No 1). Washington, D. C. 14

15 United States Department of Health and Human Services (1996). Physical activity and health: A report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, G. A: U. S., Department of Health and Human Services, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. SUGGESTED READINGS Fox, E.L, Bowers, R. W. and Foss, M. L. (1993). The Physiological Basis For Exercise And Sports. Madison: Brown and Benchmark. Neiman, D.C. (1999). Exercise Testing and Prescription. A Health - Related Approach. 4th ed. California: Mayfield Publishing Company. 15

16 TOPIC 2: T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S PAGES 2 STUDY SESSION : COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS INTRODUCTION LEARNING OUTCOMES STUDY SESSIONS SUMMARY SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES REFERENCES SUGGESTED READING

17 Study session 2: COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS INTRODUCTION: Although there are divergent views on the elements that constitute physical fitness, the common test parameters or measures can be classified into two categories. The first category comprises those parameters that are actually essential for health and fitness, while the second category consists of elements that enhance skill proficiency in sports and exercise. Accordingly, components of physical fitness can be grouped into two, namely health - related and motor performance- related components. In this unit, the elements that constitute both healths - related and motor performance - related components will be discussed. Learning outcomes: At the end of this study session, you should be able to: 2.1 Distinguish between health - related components and motor performance - related components of physical fitness. 2.2 Identify the components of both healths - related and motor performance- related physical fitness. 2.3 Explain each of the components of health - related and motor performance- related physical fitness. 2.1 HEALTH-RELATED COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS The American College of Sports and Medicine (1995) defined health - related physical fitness as a state characterized by an ability to perform daily tasks or activities with vigor and a demonstration of traits and capacities that are associated with low risk of premature development of the hypo- kinetic diseases (those that are associated with physical inactivity). Such traits/ qualities and capabilities are essential to health and /or work capacity. It is important to develop the components of health - related fitness and insist for their prominence in schools, worksites and community programmes. The elements that constitute health - related physical fitness are: a) Cardio respiratory endurance, b) Musculoskeletal fitness (flexibility, muscular strength and muscular endurance). c) Body composition. (Neiman, 1999) 2.2 CARDIORESPIRATORY ENDURANCE This element is sometimes referred to as circular-respiratory fitness. It is defined as the ability to continue or persist in strenuous tasks 17

18 involving large muscle groups for an extended period of time (American College of Sports Medicine, 1993; Baranowski, Boucahard, Bar- Or, et.al. 1992;Heyward, 1991). It is the ability of the circulatory and respiratory systems to adjust to and recover from the effects of whole- body exercise or work ( Nieman, 1999). The limit of persistence in such task is determined primarily by the functional capacity of the cardio-respiratory systems. Similarly, persistence in such task is specific to the various kinds of task and the work intensity. The American College of Sports and Medicine (1995) explained that cardio-respiratory endurance is considered health - related element of physical fitness because low levels have been consistently linked with markedly increased risk of premature death from all causes, especially heart disease. High levels of cardio-respiratory endurance indicate a high physical work capacity, which is the ability to release relatively high amounts of energy over an extended period of time. Cardio-respiratory endurance is the most important element of the health - related physical fitness. It can also be an important factor in the maintenance of the systematic health base by means of helping to prevent degenerative changes in the heart and circulatory system (Updyke and Johnson 1970). 2.3 MUSCULO - SKELETAL FITNESS This involves the muscular and the skeletal systems. Muscular - skeletal fitness has three components, namely flexibility, muscular strength and muscular endurance. Flexibility is defined as the functional capacity of the joints to move through a full range of movement (Caspersen, Powell and Christenson, 1994; Golding, Myers and Sinning, 1998; American College of Sports and Medicine, 1993). Flexibility is specific to each joint of the body. Muscles, ligaments, and tendons largely determine the amount of movement possible at each joint. There are two types of flexibility, namely static and dynamic flexibility. Static flexibility is the range of motion about a joint, while dynamic flexibility is defined as the opposition or resistances of a joint to motion. In other words, dynamic flexibility is concerned with the forces that oppose movement over any range rather than the range itself. (Fox, Bowers and Foss, 1993). Flexibility is significant in performing certain sports and also to general health and physical fitness. For instance flexibility exercise has been successfully prescribed for relief of dysmenorrhea,(painful menstruation) general neuromuscular tension and low back pains. Athletes who maintain a satisfactory degree of flexibility are less susceptible to certain muscular injuries (Fox, Bowers and Foss, 1993). The range of motion about a joint is specific in two ways. Firstly, the tendency toward a specific pattern of flexibility and selected sports events. For instance, shot - putters and discus throwers have greater flexibility in 18

19 the wrist than do wrestlers. Secondly, flexibility is joint - specific. That is high degree of flexibility in one joint does not necessarily indicate a high flexibility in other joints. For instance, gymnasts can be seen to have above - average flexibility in the hip but are below average in the ankle. Muscular strength is defined as the maximal one- effort force that can be exerted against a resistance (Caspersen, Powell and Christenson, 1985; American College of Sports and Medicine, 1993). It can also be defined as the maximum amount of force that can be generated in an isolated movement of a single muscle group. Lifting heavy weights maximally once or twice or exerting maximal force when gripping a hand dynamometer provides measurements of muscular strength. Muscular endurance is the ability of muscles to exert or apply a submaximal force repeatedly or to sustain a submaximal muscular contraction for a certain period of time (Neiman, 1999). It is the capacity to persist in localized muscular effort. The physiological limit for this functional quality is apparently localized in the muscle group itself and not determined primarily by the failure of the cardio - respiratory systems to supply oxygen. 2.4 BODY COMPOSITION Body composition refers to the body s relative amount of fat, and lean body tissue or fat-free mass. Body weight is divided into two components, namely fat weight (weight of fat tissue) and fat -free weight (the weight of the remaining lean tissue). Percent body fat refers to the percentage of total weight represented by fat weight. Percent body fat is the preferred index used to evaluate a person s body composition. Obesity is defined as an excessive accumulation of fat weight. Men have optimal body fat level when the percent body fat is 15% or less. However they are considered obese when their body fat percentage is 25% and higher. The optimal body fat level for women is 23% or less. They are considered obese when their body fat percentage is 33% and higher. Body Composition is related to both sports performance and health. 2.5 MOTOR PERFORMANCE RELATED COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS The elements that constitute motor performance- related physical fitness are the qualities that are primarily essential to sports skill and motor- performance. They include coordination, agility, speed, power, balance and reaction-time. Coordination is defined as the ability to use the sense, such as sight and hearing, together with body parts, in performing motor tasks smoothly and accurately. It is the common denominator of all motor performance parameters. It involves the nervous system and musculo-skeletal systems. 19

20 It is responsible for the smooth flow of movement in the execution of motor task. Agility is the ability to rapidly change the position of the entire body in space, with speed and accuracy. It is also defined as the ability to change directions while moving as nearly as possible at full speed. High degrees or levels of agility enable an individual to change body position in space efficiently and easily. Balance is the ability to maintain equilibrium while either stationary or in motion. It is a specific kind of coordination involving reflexes, vision, the inner ear, the cerebellum and musculo-skeletal systems. Balance is classified in to two, namely static and dynamic balance. Static balance involves the maintenance of equilibrium in one fixed position, whereas dynamic balance refers to the maintenance of equilibrium while in motion. Power is the rate at which work is performed. It is a function of muscular strength and speed. Power is required in most sports. For example shot-put, vertical jump, ball- throws for distance. Power is measured and exemplified by activities of movement that are very explosive in nature such as standing broad jump. Speed is the ability to perform a movement within a short period of time. Speed is measured by total body movement from one place to another, usually at least for a distance of fifty (50) met ers. A person who possesses speed is able to make series of similar movement in a short span of time. Speed is expressed as distance travelled divided by the time taken to cover the distance. (Speed =distance /time) Reaction - time is defined as the time elapsed between a stimulus and the beginning of the reaction to it. In other words, it is the length of time required to initiate a response to a specific stimulus. SUMMARY In study session 2, you have learned: Definition of health-related component of physical fitness Elements that constitute the health-related components of physical fitness Elements that constitute motor-related performance of physical fitness ITQ: Define health- related component of physical fitness. ITA: An ability to perform daily task or activities with vigour SELF - ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQS) foe study session 2 SAQ 1. Define health - related component of physical Fitness. SAQ 2. List and explain the elements that constitute the health - related components of physical fitness. SAQ 3. List and explain the elements that constitute motor performance - related physical fitness. 20

21 REFERENCES American College of Sports Medicine (1993). Resource Manual For Guidelines For Exercise Testing And Prescription. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger. American College of Sports Medicine (1995). Guidelines for exercise Testing and prescription.. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger. Baranowski, T. Bouchard, C. Bar. Or. O. et. al. (1992). Assessment, prevalence and cardiovascular benefits of Physical activity and fitness in youth. Medicine And Science In Sports And Exercise 24 (Suppl. 6): Caspersen, C.J., Powell, K. E. and Christenson, G. M (1985). Physical activity, exercise and physical fitness: Definition and distinction for health related research. Public Health Report 100: Fox, E.L, Bowers, R. W. and Foss, M. L. (1993). The physiological basis For exercise and sport 5th ed. Madison: Brown and Benchmark. Heyward, V. H. (1991). Advanced fitness assessment and exercise Prescription. 2 nd ed. Champaign IL: Human Kinetics. Neiman, D.C. (1999). Exercise Testing And Prescription: A Health - Related Approach. 4th ed. California: Mayfield Publishing Company. SUGGESTED READINGS Bucher, C. A. (1979). Foundations of Physical education. 8th ed. Toronto: C. V. Moshy company. Fox, E.L, Bowers, R. W. and Foss, M. L. (1993). The physiological basis For exercise and sports 5th ed. Madison: Brown and Benchmark. 21

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23 TOPIC 3: T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S PAGES 3 STUDY SESSION : PRINCIPLES AND PHASES OF TRAINING PROGRAMMES INTRODUCTION LEARNING OUTCOMES STUDY SESSION PHASES OF TRAINING PROGRAMMES OFF-SEASON TRAINING PRE-SEASON TRAINING IN-SEASON TRAINING PRINCIPLE OF TRAINING CONDITIONING SUMMARY SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES REFERENCES SUGGESTED READING

24 Study session 3: PRINCIPLES AND PHASES OF TRAINING PROGRAMMES INTRODUCTION: Training programmes consist of systematically selected exercises geared towards developing physical fitness components such as cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular endurance, muscular strength, flexibility, agility, balance, coordination, power and reaction-time as well as skill proficiency in specific sports and recreational activities. Such exercise programmes are designed to develop the human body to a state of condition so that a given amount of physical work can be attained, when desired with minimum physical effort and without undue fatigue. Training programmes are usually undertaken in stages, with specific objectives to be attained at each stage. These stages are sometimes described as phases of training programmes. In this Unit, the different phases of training programmes and the various activities undertaken during each phase are discussed. Learning outcomes: At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to: 3.1 Define training programmes. 3.2 State the phases of training programmes. 3.3 Identify the various activities undertaken during each phase. 3.4 Identify and explain principles of training/conditioning. 3.1 PHASES OF TRAINING PROGRAMMES The total training period which is embarked upon by athletes is usually categorized into three, namely off-season, pre-season and in- Season (Fox, 1979; Fox and Mathews, 1981; Fox, Bowers and Foss, 1993). 3.2 OFF- SEASON TRAINING The off- Season training period usually begins as soon as the Inseason training period terminates at the end of the playing season. During this period, no formal competitions are organized. Instead, athletes and coaches change clubs when and where necessary and team managers embark on transfer of athletes and recruitment of new coaches. Generally, training programmes during the off- season are non - specific. Most often, athletes are only required to be moderately active and maintain body weight at or reasonably near competition weight. Offseason programmes usually comprise some or all of the following activities and exercises: 24

25 1. Weight training, with emphasis on developing muscular strength, muscular endurance and muscular power in those muscle groups that are most directly involved in the specific sports events. The athletes engage in or compete for. The training should be based on the overload principle, bearing in mind that muscular strength, muscular endurance and muscular power will increase only when the muscles are made to perform over a given period of time at near greater maximal loads than those that are normally encountered. In other words, the resistance against which muscles work should be increased throughout the course of the programme. This is what is referred to now as progressive- resistance exercise (PRE). 2. An informal (optional) 8 -weeks running programme of low intensity, performed not more than two to three times per week (frequency of 2-3 days per week). This activity can be administered concurrently with the weight training. The order in which the weight training and the informal, 8- week running are conducted does really matter. It makes little or no difference whether the running programme is performed before or after the weight training programme. 3. Participation in sports activities and recreational games, which are different from the athletes major sports, mainly for relaxation, pleasure and enjoyment. For example, track and field athletes can engage themselves in the game of badminton, squash, tennis or volleyball. 4. Limited participation in the athletes specific sports to develop their specific skills. For example, if during the in-season, a coach observed that his strikers in the game of football had some difficulties converting corner kicks to goals or converting penalty shot-outs to goals, he can make them practice these skills more during the offseason. Similarly in the game of volleyball, such skills like spiking, blocking and the different types of serves can be practiced during the season. 3.3 PRE- SEASON TRAINING The pre-season training phase follows the off-season training. It is the 8 to 10 weeks prior to competition. In this phase of the training programme, the activities are designed to increase the capacities of the energy system (phosphagen, glycolytic and aerobic) which largely supplies energy required for athletes specific sports. Fox, Bowers and Foss (1993) explained that it is during this phase of the training programme that a specific, high - intensity activities should be utilized. They recommended the following activities as programme of exercises that should be performed during the pre-season training: 25

26 1. Running at high intensity, for 8 weeks, 3 days per week. Such programmes of activities should be specific. For example, if the specific events are track and field events, track and field programmes should be utilized. 2. Weight training, 2 to 3 days per week, which was started during the off- season should be continued. 3. Viewing films and videos on sports programmes which are relevant to the athletes sports. 4. Learning specific sports strategies, for example, different formations, and skill drills. 3.4 IN - SEASON TRAINING This is the third phase of a training programme. During this phase, emphasis is placed on skill development and preparation for competitions. Generally, for athletes who compete on regular basis, drills, scrimmages and competitions will be enough to maintain the increases in relevant energy capacities that were gained during the pre- season training. However, for athletes who do not embark on weekly programmes of competitions, some maintenance conditioning programmes are required. Fox, Bowers and Foss (1993) recommended the following acti vities for these athletes: 1. One or two days per week running at high - intensity to be performed in a similar way to that of the pre-season training. 2. Weight training with one day per week, alternating the upper body and the lower body workouts on weekly basis. For example, one week, upper body; then next week lowers body. This programme enhances all-round development, and it is also recommended even for athletes who take part in regular competitions, often referred to as regulars. 3. Utilizing drill which improves skills in specific sports and help in maintaining fitness. To be able to attain these objectives, such drills should be intense and long enough in duration to stress the muscle or muscles groups that are involved in the sports. 4. Scrimmages and regular competitive performances also constitute part of the activities to be embarked upon during the in-season training. 3.5 PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING CONDITIONING Generally, conditioning is aimed at augmenting the energy capacities of muscles through an exercise programme, while training is an exercise programme designed to develop and/ or increase skill of performance that is sports skill proficiency. However, for the attainment of fitness, individual need excellently designed training and conditioning programmes to 26

27 augment the energy capacities of muscles and develop and/or increase skill proficiency. Training and/or conditioning programmes are therefore based on certain principles (tenets). These tenets are: 1. Recognition of the major energy system(s) utilized to perform a given exercise. There are three energy systems (pathways) through which energy is made available during exercise and/or physical activity. These are adenosine triphosphatephospho-creatine (ATP-PC) sometimes called the phosphagen system, glycolytic (lactic acid) and aerobic (oxygen) systems. Energy system(s) utilized during the performance of exercise is determined using the performance time of the exercise. Performance time of an exercise simply means the length of time an exercise lasts. Generally, the anaerobic energy pathway is utilized during anaerobic types of exercise (exercises that are performed for short period of time) while the aerobic pathway is utilized during aerobic type of exercises (prolonged, endurance exercises). Thus, the energy pathways utilized during any exercise are time and intensity dependent. This fact must be remembered when designing training and/or conditioning programmes. 2. Utilizing the overload principle (now modif ied to principle of progressive-resistance exercise) to construct a conditioning and/or training programmes that will develop the relevant energy system. The overload principle is the physiological principle on which strength and endurance capacity of muscles largely depends. The principle states that strength, endurance and hypertrophy of muscles will increase only when muscles are made to perform for a given period of time at near maximal strength and endurance capacity (Fox, Bowers and Foss, 1993). Thus, the gains in strength and endurance are most pronounced when muscles are made to exercise in the overload zone, that is, with resistance (weights) which are far above those normally encountered. When the overload principle is applied to resistance (weight) training programmes, it requires that the weight against which muscles work should be increased throughout the course of the programmes as the muscles gain strength and endurance. In track and swimming events, the overload principle is accomplished through the deliberate manipulations of training distance, training time, training duration and training intensity. ITQ: Define training programmes 27

28 ITA: Training programmes consist of systematically selected exercises geared towards developing physical fitness components such as cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular endurance, flexibility,agility etc. SUMMARY In study session 3, you have learned: Definition of training programmes. The Phases of training programmes and the identification of various activities undertaken during each phase.training programmes consist of systematically selected exercises geared towards developing physical fitness components (cardio-respiratory endurance, muscular strength, flexibility, agility, balance, coordination, power and reaction time) as well as skill proficiency in specific sports and recreational activities. Phases of training/ conditioning programmes are off- season, pre- season and in- season training. Activities to be performed in each phase vary, basically on the objectives to be attained during each phase. Training programmes are based on two tenets (principles) namely; overload principle and recognition of the energy pathways which supplies energy during the performance of a given sports and design training programme that will develop that energy pathway more than will any other. SELF- ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQS) for study session 3 SAQ.1 Explain what a training programme is. SAQ.2 State any three (3) phases of a training programme. SAQ.3 State at least three activities that are normally performed in each of the phases of a training programme. SAQ.4 State any two tenets of training and or/conditioning programmes. REFERENCES Fox, E. L. (1979 ). Physiology of Sports. Philadelphia: C. V. Mosby Company. Fox, E. L. and Mathews, D. K. (1981). The Physiological Basis Of Physical Education And Athletics. 3 rd ed. Philadelphia: C. V. Mosby company. Fox, E.L, Bowers, R. W. and Foss, M. L. (1993). The Physiological Basis For Exercise And Sports. 5 th ed. Madison: Brown and Benchmark. 28

29 SUGGESTED READINGS Bucher, C, A. (1979) Foundations of Physical Education. 8 th ed. Toronto: C. V. Mosby company Neiman, D.C. (1999). Exercise Testing And Prescription. A Health- Related Approach. 4th ed. California: Mayfield Publishing Company. Updyke, W. F. and Johnson, B.P. (1970) Principles Of Modern Physical Education, Health And Recreation. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winsto. Inc 29

30 TOPIC 4: T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S PAGES 4 STUDY SESSION : INTERVAL TRAINING INTRODUCTION LEARNING OBJECTIVES STUDY SESSION SUMMARY SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES REFERENCES SUGGESTED READING

31 Study session 4: INTERVAL TRAINING INTRODUCTION: Although interval training was developed for endurance training, in running and swimming, its general principles can be applied to virtually any conditioning or training programme. Generally, four elements are involved, namely speed or rate, distance or length of time, rest interval and number of bouts or sets. Any of these elements can be varied in order to increase the work load, or as means of adding variety to the programme. Interval training can also be used to rehabilitate cardiac patients. In this unit, objectives of interval training, interval training terms, and variables to be manipulated are discussed. Learning outcomes: At the end of this study session, readers are expected to: 4.1 Define interval training. 4.2 Identify interval training terminologies. 4.3 Identify and explain variables that are manipulated in interval training programme. 4.4 Design interval training programmes for different conditioning or training programmes for different populations. 4.1 DEFINITION OF IN INTERVAL TRAINING Interval training is a conditioning and/ or training programmes comprising systematically designed exercises performed in a series of repetitions alternated with periods of relief. Periods of relief may be rest relief (light activity such as walking) or work relief (mild to moderate exercises such as jogging). Fox, Bowers and Foss (1993) explained that interval training can be used to improve both aerobic (endurance) and anaerobic (spirit) energy capacities and performances. Specifically in the development of the energy systems, interval training programme can be used to accomplish the following: a) Internal training allows the stores of ATP and PC to be used over and over, which in turn provides sufficient stimulus for promoting an increase in the energy capacity of this system and aids in delaying the onset of fatigue by not delving so deeply into anaerobic glycolysis. b) With proper regulation of the duration and type of relief intervals, the involvement of anaerobic glycolysis will be maximal and thus improved. 31

32 c) By performing longer work intervals with many repetitions and rest relief intervals, the oxygen transport system is stressed and the aerobic energy system is improved (Fox, Bowers and Foss 1993). Although interval training programmes are used to improve both aerobic and anaerobic energy capacities and performances, it is important to remember that the programmes should be individually tailored to ensure that each individual receives maximum benefits. Consequently, if such programmes are designed for athletes, interval training designed for sprint athletes will differ from that for either speed-durance or endurance athletes. 4.2 INTERVAL TRAINING TERMINOLOGIES In order to be able to select and plan activities for the interval training, certain terminologies need to be understood properly. These terminologies are: a) Work interval: This is defined as the portion of the interval training programme which consists of high- intensity work effort. For example, running 200m or 100m at prescribed times. b) Relief interval: This is the time between work intervals as well as between sets. Relief interval may consist of : i. A light activity such as walking. This is referred to as rest relief. ii. Mild to moderate exercise suck as jogging. This is described as work relief. iii. Combination of light activities and mild to moderate exercises. Relief interval is usually expressed in relation to the work interval, which together form work-relief ratio. Work- relief ratio may be expressed as: 1: 1 /2, 1:1, 1:2, or 1:3. A ratio of 1: 1 /2 implies that the time of the relief interval is equal to half of the time of the work interval, 1:1 signifies that the relief and work intervals are equal; 1:2 implies that relief interval is twice as long as the work interval and 1:3 indicates that the relief interval is three time as long as the work interval. Generally, with longer work intervals, ratio of 1:1/2 or 1:1 is prescribed, while with shorter work intervals, owing to the highintensity work efforts, work-relief ratio of 1:3 is prescribed. c) A set consist of a series of work and relief intervals. For instance, running 200m at a prescribed time with designated relief intervals. d) Repetitions: these are the number of work intervals within one set. For instance, running 200m six times at prescribed times constitute one set and six repetitions. e) Training distance is the distance of the work interval, for example, 200m or 100m. f) Training frequency is the number of times training is held per week. For example, training frequency of three days per week. 32

33 An interval training prescription contains vital information concerning an interval training work- out. That is, information on sets, number of repetitions, distance or performance time of the work interval, training time, and the time of relief. For instance, one set from a prescription for a running programmes can be written as: Set 2 4x 200 at 0:22 (1:25). Where: 4= number of repetition. 200= training distance in meters. 0:22=training time in minutes and seconds. 1:25= time of relief interval in minutes and seconds. 4.3 INTERVAL TRAINING VARIABLES The overload principle, which is one of the tenets of training programme, when applied to interval training is accomplished through the manipulation of five variables namely: a) Rate and distance of work interval, b) Number of repetitions during each workout, c) Relief interval or the time between work intervals, d) Type of activity during relief interval, e) Frequency of training per week (Fox, Bowers and Foss, 1993). Selection of the types of work for the work interval that is interval training prescription should be specific to the athlete s sports. For instance, sprinters should structure their programmes according to their sprinting needs. However, the type of workout to be selected for general conditioning is based mainly on preferences, since improving specific sports may not be the objectives. Interval training programmes designed for general conditioning should therefore comprise activities which are most enjoyed by the individuals. Such activities may include swimming, jogging, jumping rope cycling, or calisthenics MANIPULATIONS OF INTERVAL TRAINING VARIABLES a) Rate and Distance of Work Interval. Interval training prescriptions can be made up of long duration work intervals performed at low intensities, medium duration intervals performed at moderate intensities and short duration workouts performed at high intensities. The prescription content depends on which energy systems are to be developed. Fox, Bowers and Foss (1993) explained that for most activities the interval training prescription is written taking into consideration the performance time of the work interval. Performance time of an activity helps in determining the predominant energy pathway for the activity. Knowledge of the performance time is essential for the construction of the work intervals of the interval training programme. 33

34 The effectiveness of the work intervals in an interval training programme largely depends on the intensities at which the activities are performed. Intensities of work intervals are determined based on heart rate response when performing the activities. Target heart rate (THR) which is the highest heart rate to be attained during any work intervals, for most interval training workouts, is computed as a percentage of the maximal heart rate reserve (HRR) or maximal heart rate (HRmax). For most young persons, THR between 80 and 90% of the HRR or between 85 and 95% of the HRmax are used to compute THR during the work intervals (Fox, Bowers and Foss, 1993). For young persons, especially College and University athletes, either the maximal heart rate reserve or the maximal heart rate method can be used to provide adequate guidelines for ensuring proper work intervals should be hard enough to raise the heart rate to at least 180 beats per minute. The following illustrates how intensity of work intervals can be determined using either the HRR or HRmax method. HRR is defined as the difference between the resting heart (HRest) and the maximal heart rate (HRmax). Assuming one s HRest is 60 beats per minute, and HRmax is 180 beats per minute. If 80% THR is to be determined, the following formula is used: 80% THR = {(HRmax HRest) x % + HRest} = {180b/min - 60b/min) x 80% +60b/min} = { (120b/min x 80%) + 60b/min} = 96b/min + 60b/min = 156b/min. 80% THR = 156b/min. THR of 156 beats per minute implies that the work interval during the interval training should be intensive enough to cause the heart rate to reach 156 beats per minute. The HRmax method requires that THR is calculated from the maximal heart rate only. Suppose, maximal heart rate is 180 beats per minute, 80% THR will be: 80% THR = 80% of 180 beats per minute. = 80/100 x 180 beats per minute = 144 beats per minute. 80% THR = 144 beats per minute. THR of 144 beats per minute implies that the work interval during the interval training should be intensive enough to cause the heart rate to reach 144 beats per minute. Note, irrespective of the percent THR used to determine the intensity of work intervals, THR below the percent THR computed for an individual will not always provide a great enough overload (intensity) to stimulate improvement in endurance capacity or endurance performance or even augmentation in the relevant energy systems. The use of the HRR and HRmax methods to determine THR, will require that the HRest and HRmax be determined. The HRest can be determined by palpating either the radial artery at the wrist or carotid 34