Preparing the USA Women's Artistic Gymnastics Team for the 1988 Olympics:

Transcription

1 The Spmt Psychologist, 1989, 3, Preparing the USA Women's Artistic Gymnastics Team for the 1988 Olympics: A Multimodel Approach Richard ID. Gordin, Jr. Utah State University Keith P. Henschen University of Utah The following article explains the sport psychology program utilized with the USA Women's Artistic Gymnastics Team. The program was developed in 1983 and was implemented over the past quadrennium. Both service and research delivery systems are explained as well as the organization of service delivery over the past 5 years. This multimodel approach to the systematic training of elite world-class female athletes is presented to illustrate the psychometrics, mental skill development, and group process techniques utilized within the U.S. Gymnastic Federation's artistic program. Both organizational and philosophical components of service delivery are explained. The range of services and problems encountered are also discussed. Finally, a detailed account of service leading to the Olympic Games and the program's effectiveness is presented. The current sport sciences program within the United States Gymnastics Federation (USGF) women's artistic program began in 1983, just before the 1984 Olympic year. During the past quadrennium leading up to the Summer Olympic Games in Seoul, a sport science committee was formed within the USGF. Subcommittees were organized in order to establish a means for implementing research in sport science and sport medicine. These subcommittees (exercise physiology, sport psychology, orthopedics, biomechanics, and nutrition) were responsible for the publication and dissemination of information that would assist gymnastics coaches, administrators, and gymnasts with safety, proficiency, and knowledge of the sport. A project entitled Getting Ready for '88 was initiated with three objectives in mind: (a) to return useful information to athletes and coaches, (b) to initiate an assessment program, and (c) to begin collecting data for longitudinal analyses. Also, a service delivery system was implemented in sport psychology to help systematically prepare young gymnasts mentally for skill development and competition. Richard D. Gordin, Jr., is with the Department of Health, Physical Education and Recreation at Utah State University, Logan, UT Keith P. Henschen is with the Department of Physical Education at the University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT

2 USA Women's Gymnastics Team 367 The preparation of the U.S. National Women's Artistic Gymnastics Team began with the training and selection of athletes at the junior level, which consists of young gymnasts between the ages of 10 and 14. These athletes have achieved the highest national level of elite gymnastics, based upon a rigorous qualification system and years of training (Sands et al., 1987). Getting Ready for '88 was an attempt at a national research and development program for preparing young female athletes within the USGF. These efforts were also directed at preparing the 1988 Olympic Team. Philosophy of Service Delivery Modem science can help young gymnasts develop their skill safely and effectively (Sands, 1985). During the U.S. Olympic Committee's conference on developing the Elite Athlete Project in 1980, a leading coach delineated a model of the role of science in the preparation of athletes. The first step was accomplished by surveying each area in the sport sciences to determine what was most critical to success in the sport of gymnastics. The sport psychology committee developed the philosophy of providing service directly to the athletes and coaches while at the same time collectively accumulating data in collaboration with the other sport sciences. Therefore the sport psychologists first visited various competition sites in order to determine what coaches and athletes most wanted to know concerning mental preparation. After many early morning workouts and open workout sessions prior to competition were observed, the sport psychology component was formulated. Most of the coaches and athletes agreed that at least five critical areas should be scrutinized: self-concept, emotional set, achievement motivation, concentration, and anxiety. These are not the only areas to assess in psychology, but they are the ones we have found to be of great interest and importance to coaches and athletes alike. Also, some prehmary evidence based upon previous research (Poole, Henschen, Shultz, Gordin, & Hill, 1986) suggests there are differences in these areas of psychological makeup among All-American, All-Conference, and other university female scholarship athletes in various sports. These psychological characteristics are also important in the sport of gymnastics. We believe the collection of information about the individual gymnast is important in helping to design an individualized psychological mental training program. Therefore it is hard to distinguish between research and service. Each athlete has consented to our maintenance of longitudinal data, which are utilized to help establish rapport and trust between the sport psychologist and the athlete. After the paper-and-pencil assessments are scored, the athlete receives irnrnediate feedback concerning her strengths and weaknesses in mental training. For instance, one gymnast may be very anxious during competition; this would be discussed with her and appropriate interventions would be instituted if necessary. A profile is then developed on each gymnast and it is consensually validated. The gymnast realizes that any information gathered through self-report or through individual consultation with the sport psychologist is strictly confidential. However, if there is a need to discuss a certain change in the psychological training of that gymnast, the coach is notified according to the release and consent signed by the gymnast.

3 368 Gordin and Henschen The self-report inventories cover the areas the athletes and coaches identify as being of interest. Self-concept is assessed by the Tennessee Self-concept Scale or the Piers-Harris Self-concept Scale (Fitts, 1965). We have found these inventories to be helpful in identifying whether an athlete has a positive selfconcept. We feel it is extremely important for these young athletes to develop strong and healthy self-concepts. The self-concept of elite gymnasts is not always as high as it should be. It then becomes necessary to counsel the gymnasts individually to correct this problem. Often this involves a look into the interpersonal relationships with coaches, parents, siblings, or others. Serious psychopathology in this area has rarely been identified. Moreover, a different perspective on the situation and an appropriate behavioral strategy suggested to the gymnast can greatly alleviate the lack of confidence. Emotional set is assessed by the Profile of Mood States (McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman, 1971). Mood state is very important to assess. We administer these inventories at most training camps and sometimes at competition sites, when we can do so unobtrusively. This information is invaluable. If the gymnast exhibits characteristics of tension, anger, fatigue, and confusion in a training camp situation but not in a competitive arena, then she can be guided in how to transfer more positive coping mechanisms to training. Mood state is very labile and therefore is assessed three or four times each year. Also, some mood state measures are collected daily or weekly along with other training variables. In addition to mood state data, we collect information on demographics and training such as name, age, age at onset of training, training days per week, number of routines performed per day and per week, number of elements per workout, and number of hours' sleep. It is then possible to look at periodization of training leading to important competitions. It is also possible to build a psychological periodization scheme for each gymnast to coincide her mental training with her physical training. Achievement motivation is examined by utilizing the Scale for Sporting Environments (Rushall & Fox, 1980). It is extremely important in gymnastics to approach a competition with the thought of succeeding rather than of avoiding failing. This sport-specific instrument has proven to be a great help in identifying the tendencies in either direction. The difference between approach-success and avoid-failure orientations also provides a useful insight to aid in the development of confidence in certain gymnasts. Often exercises can be suggested, goalsetting can be implemented or adjusted, and the coach can be an ally in helping the gymnast learn to take reasonable risks in order to meet the difficulty requirements of each gymnastics routine. The governing bodies of gymnastics are increasing the requirements for difficulty each year. World-class gymnasts must respond to the challenge in order to remain world class. Helping the athlete learn to compete, and to compete safely, is a service the sport psychologist provides after proper assessment utilizing the Scale for Sporting Environments. Concentration skills are quantified by Nideffer's Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (Nideffer, 1977). These skills vary with each gymnast, and it is not possible to become a world-class gymnast without developing some concentration skills. Most young gymnasts have developed their skills through trial and error. Moreover, any skills that have been developed are usually attributed to spurious relationships with the type of competition or premeet routine and are not systematically practiced or controlled. One example of this occurred at the

4 USA Women's Gymnastics Team 369 recent national championships when a top female gymnast fell while attempting a difficult maneuver on the uneven bars. She later attributed the fall to her lack of concentration and, more important, to her inability to regain her concentration after warmups. In other words, this gymnast did not have the control over her concentration. Several concentration exercises were practiced and suggested to gymnasts who were in need of this training both individually and in groups. Also, several training tapes were recorded and distributed to coaches around the nation to be used in the gym every day. We employed many techniques including dichotomous listening exercises, a modified Stroop exercise, and model training exercises to simulate competition during training. Most of the athletes and coaches were receptive to these exercises. We also taught the athletes to shift attention to external cues and back to internal cues upon demand by providing them with exercises and training in national training camps. Both of us attended all national team training camps and important competitions throughout the quadrennium. Finally, anxiety level was examined by utilizing the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970). Anxiety is a most important variable to assess frequently, in order to recognize athletes who need stress management training and those who do not need these skills. Often observation alone is not as accurate in predicting who is anxious and who is not. The combined use of self-report, observation, and consensual validation is much more accurate. The athletes also appreciate any aid we can give in helping them gain control over anxiety and the panic that is sometimes created in the competitive arena. As stated earlier, the information gathered from these inventories was utilized in several ways. A data bank of information was established on each gymnast over the Cyear period. These longitudinal studies of elite athletes are rare. This kind of information allows the sport psychologist to monitor change in the gymnast's psychological profile, provide a baseline for comparative purposes, establish norms, and provide a basis for discussion with each gymnast about her psychological strengths and weaknesses. After every administration of this test battery, we met with each gymnast to discuss the results of her profile and to give her a chance to validate the selfreport data. We felt this assessment and feedback format was extremely important in the trust and rapport-building aspect of our program. The athletes were excited and appreciated receiving feedback from an ally who wanted to help them become the best gymnasts they could become. The more often we were able to visit and confirm an athlete's feelings, the more trust and rapport we established with her. These athletes appreciate being involved in the decision making process of their training. In essence, their individualized mental training plans emanated from these discussions. In working as a sport psychologist, it is important to cooperate with all the sport sciences. To this end, we collaborated with the other sport scientists in collecting data on exercise physiology, anthropometrics, and orthopedics (i.e., a thorough orthopedic examination including evaluation of the knee extensors and flexors). Also, high-speed flexing was conducted for kinematic computer analysis on each gymnast and nutritional data were gathered utilizing the Eating Disorders Inventory and daily nutritional records. These data were all stored so that a longitudinal individual profile on each gymnast could be formulated. Our

5 370 Gordin and Henschen philosophy of research and service delivery has been one of a multimodel approach. Sport psychologists must work closely with other sport scientists to be most effective in the long-term development of the elite athlete. We believe in the Eastern European method of sport psychology as described by Roberts and Kirniecik (1989). That is, the coach is really the primary service provider in the area of sport psychology. However, we do provide individual athlete consultations and feedback to athletes and coaches. We answer numerous inquiries and telephone calls every week, and also occasionally bring a gymnast in to stay with us for a few days to work through some individual concerns. We provide a multifaceted service delivery system but attempt to remember that the coach is the real sport psychologist and that the athlete is ultimately responsible for her own mental preparation. However, we do provide consultation upon request and coaching clinics and education upon demand. We do not believe in the dependency model in sport psychology but we do recognize the unique role a sport psychology consultant can play in some special circumstances. Making Contact We are both listed in the U.S. Olympic Committee's Sport Psychology Registry as educational sport psychologists. However, we were contacted as sport psychology consultants long before our official listing in the registry. We have both been active in gymnastics as sport psychology consultants at the university level for the past 10 years. It was our professional associations within the gymnastics world (i.e., coaches, athletes) that opened the door for us with the U.S. Gymnastics Federation. We are contacted frequently by coaches and gymnasts and are official members and traveling consultants with the USGF's Women's Artistic Gymnastics National Team. Range of Services Provided We provide a wide range of services. Presently, one of us works with the Junior National Team and the other with the Senior National Team. Our services include instruction in the major skills of mental training: relaxation/activation, motivation, goal-setting, communication skills, time management skills, and performance ritual development. We also provide feedback to the coaches in how to structure workouts for optimal gains in learning and performance. We have offered national coaching workshops at least two or three times a year to educate the coaches about the systematic provision of mental training. The typical training camp includes 20 to 24 junior or senior elite National Team members. We attend every camp and meet individually as well as in group settings with the athletes to instruct and reinforce their skills in relaxation training, autogenic training, hypnosis, imagery, concentration, and attitudinal training. Typically we will spend from 5 to 10 hours with the gymnasts in a 5-day training camp. We also meet with the coaches in classroom/demonstration settings to teach them similar skills. Finally, one or both of us attend most major competitions to answer questions and provide service (e-g., refresher session in relaxation skills, ritual, stress management). However, we have found that it is the coaches, not the athletes, who are recipients of crisis management at major venues.

6 Specific Organization USA Women's Gymnastics Team 371 Our pre-olympic camp was located in Houston in the Zweeks prior to our departure for Seoul. During this period all the Olympic Team members and their personal coaches assembled to begin final preparation for the Olympic Games. From Houston the team traveled to Los Angeles for 3 days of training and credentialing prior to departing for Korea. Sport psychology consultation was available from the time the gymnasts arrived in Los Angeles until the completion of the Olympic Games. One of us accompanied the team to Korea while the other met the delegation in Korea. We were not present - in Houston because the objective there was on physical conditioning. For the 3 weeks prior to actual competition in Seoul, we spent a great deal of time counseling individual athletes and coaches. By this time the athletes were well trained in psychological skills but the coaches were another matter: They needed a lot of help in dealing with the stress and anxiety of the Olympics. We met with the athletes each day at the training site and basically inquired as to specific needs. We mediated several tense situations between coaches or between coach and athlete. One of us had to return to the United States prematurely, but the other stayed with the personal coaches and delegation throughout the Games in the Olympic Family Town. The athletes were accompanied by two of the personal coaches and stayed in the Olympic Village. One of us visited the Olympic Village on occasion but was not credentialed for the Village. An elaborate series of requests was required to gain entrance. We did not see an unusual need for crisis management. One of us did help a personal coach with a crisis concerning credentialing and separation from her gymnast. The gymnast also was concerned that her coach did not have the same access as other coaches. But it must be remembered that seven personal coaches accompanied seven gymnasts. The group dynamics of any decision-making on the part of the coaches was difficult. However, we do not develop our program on the premise of crisis management and dependency; we do not use the medical model. We spent 4 years training these gymnasts in appropriate psychological skills leading up to the Olympic Games. In our opinion, the Olympics is not a place for the sport psychologist to intrude into the gymnast's personal preparation. It is a time of support and observation. It is a time to be there when asked for advice. Types of Services The types of services provided across the quadrennium can be categorized into four areas: (a) performance enhancement skills, (b) group dynamics, (c) nonperformance services, and (d) coaching education. Rrfonnance enhancement skills included teaching the normal psychological skills necessary for optimum performance (i.e., relaxationlactivation, concentration, imagery). The group dynamics education was a constant challenge because most gymnasts and coaches were from various parts of the country and had competed against each other previously. We operated on the premise that all groups experience the following stages of development: forming, storming, norming, and performing. We therefore concentrated on developing both social and task cohesion.

7 372 Gordin and Henschen Women's gymnastics is unique in that these young athletes compete for private clubs for 4 years and then come together as an Olympic team representing the United States. We did not have a national team training site in gymnastics until recently. These athletes know each other but are not used to living with each other and competing with each other as a team. Occasionally two or three will compete in an international competition and/or at the World Championships. However, the attrition from World Championships to Olympic Games is high. That is, we almost always compete with new team members. These members are not selected until the few weeks prior to the Games. Also, if a gymnast happens to medal in the Games, this means continued success and revenue to the club that produced her. Much pressure is added at Olympic venues (i.e., security) that compounds the situation. It is important to help coaches and athletes realize that the tension and storming of the group process is normal and that the group will progress to norrning and performing if properly guided. Tuckman's group dynamics model has served us well in operationalizing the group process to the athletes and coaches. Sometimes just knowing what is occurring can alleviate pressure and expedite group dynamics. Nonperformance services we provided were primarily concerned with eating disorder counseling and retirement counseling. The latter service is crucial because these athletes retire from international competition at an early age. The U.S. Olympic Committee has just recently incorporated a retirement education program for all Olympic athletes, and this idea is very sound. The coaching education is ongoing and was especially critical just prior to these Games. Each athlete had her personal coach with her for all the training as well as the actual competition. As mentioned earlier, instances of contention and interpersonal strife did arise in Seoul, and we attempted to deal with this as delicately as possible. Also, as stated earlier, we believe the coach is the m e sport psychologist and we fostered hints and aids throughout the 4 years that the coach could incorporate in crucial competitions. Effectiveness We would like to report that everything went right with our delivery of services and that nothing went wrong, but we honestly cannot. Overall, we were extremely effective with the majority of athletes but we were not quite as effective with the coaches. We were able to establish good rapport with the athletes and they have come to welcome us as part of the staff. The athletes have recognized the importance of mental skills and have embraced the concept enthusiastically. Coaches, on the other hand, have received us with mixed emotions. Most have sought out and desired our services but a few have been hesitant to utilize mental training. If we were to start again, we probably would not do many thing differently. It would be a good idea to train our team together for longer periods of time with a national coaching staff and sport science team. However, we must operate within the constraints of our national governing body. Problems Encountered and How Handled Possibly the most crucial problem we encountered was limited access to the athletes. Because the athletes train at various clubs throughout the nation and are

8 USA Women's Gymnastics Team 373 only together as a group at training camps, our contact with each athlete was frequently limited. Our only solution was to make sure that one or both of us was available at every opportunity. We have also, as stated earlier, had athletes spend weekends with us and our families so that we could conduct intensive counseling sessions with them. A second problem we frequently encountered was the need for a good referral system for clinical problems. If an athlete needed clinical help and was training somewhere distant from us, making proper referrals was difficult. Finding competent psychologists who understand athletes is a real problem in many communities. We have not been able to fully solve this dilemma, but we hope the USOC or one of our professional organizations will provide the solution. A final problem, which is not unique to women's gymnastics, was the need to educate coaches properly concerning various stages of psychological skills development. This is an ongoing problem that changes as frequently as new coaches develop elite-level competitors. Conclusion Because we have used a variety of interventions in many different ways, it appears we have been somewhat successful. The athletes and coaches have expressed their thanks many times. The real measure of our success has been seeing the athletes grow and mature and apply psychological skills in areas outside of sports. Our success has hinged on the fact that we have provided necessary psychological skills and counseling without being intrusive. References Fitts, W.H. (1965). Tennessee Self-concept Scale. Nashville: Counselor Recordings and Tests. McNair, R.M., Lorr, M., & Droppleman, L. (1971). Projile of Mood States. San Diego: Educational and Industrial Testing Service. Nideffer, R.M. (1977). Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style. San Diego: Enhanced Performance Associates. Poole, C., Henschen, K.P., Shultz, B.B., Gordin, R.D., &Hill, J. (1986). Psychological profiles of elite collegiate athletes according to performance level. In L-E. Unestahl (Ed.), Contemporary sport psychology (pp ). Orebro, Sweden: Veje. Roberts, G.C., & Kimiecik, J.C. (1989). Sport psychology in the German Democratic Republic: An interview with Dr. Gerd Konzag. The Sport Psychologist, 3, Rushall, B., & Fox, D. (1980). Scale for sporting environments. Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario. Sands, B. (1985). Conditioning for gymnastics: A dilemma. Technique, 5, 4-7. Sands, B., Eisenman, P., Johnson, S., Paulos, L., Abbot, P., Zerkel, S., & Straker, S. (1987). Getting ready for '88. Technique, 7, Spielberger, C.D., Gorsuch, R.L., & Lushene, R.E. (1970). STAI manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Manuscript submitted: May 5, 1989 Revision received: August 4, 1989