Jedan od najstarijih poku{aja merenja cirkulacije je zabele en. rezime ... Pra}enje perioperativnog balansa te~nosti

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1 /STRU^NI RAD UDK :163: DOI: /ACI S Pra}enje perioperativnog balansa te~nosti... R. Sindeli}, G. Vlajkovi}, D. Markovi}, V. Bumba{irevi} Institut za anesteziju i reanimaciju KCS, Beograd U periopeartivnom periodu je neophodno pra- }enje balansa te~nosti jer je odgovaraju}a terapija te~nostima osnov zadovoljavaju}eg ishoda le~enja. Hemodinamski monitoring omogu}ava shvatanje fiziologije cirkulacije i promene balansa te~nosti u perioperativnom periodu. To je dijagnosti~ko pomo}no sredstvo ali i vodi~ za nadoknadu te~nosti u organizmu. Stanje volumena bolesnika se prati na osnovu razli~itih hemodinamskih parametara koji se koriste kao putokaz za terapiju te~nostima i reanimaciju. Balans te~nosti je osnovni faktor u odr anju hemodinamske stabilnosti, tkivnoj oksigenaciji i organskoj funkciji. Kada se rigorozno i dosledno sprovede hemodinamski monitoring, redukuje se moratliutet, du ina i cena le~enja. Opisano je vi{e testova koji se koriste za invazivno pra}enje hemodinamike. Od uvodjenja plu}nog arterijskog katetera (PAK) u klini~ku praksu, ovaj sistem je smatran zlatnim standardom za merenje minutnog volumens srca i hemoidinamike i pra}enje balansa te~nosti u organizmu. Medjutim, u zadnjih 10 godina su razvijeni novi, minimalno invazivni i neinvazivni jednostavni na~ini za merenje hemodinamike sa ciljem evaluacije hidroelektrolitnog statusa. Oni mogu zameniti PAK u odredjenim klini~kim situacijama i pojedini od ovih tehnika omogu}uju dodatno pra}enje perioperativnog statusa te~nosti u organizmu. Cilj ovoga rada je da opi{e savremene tehnike hemodinamskog monitoringa i pra}enja stanja i terapije te~nostima u perioperativnom periodu. Klju~ne re~i: balans, te~nost, preoperativni rezime UVOD Jedan od najstarijih poku{aja merenja cirkulacije je zabele en godine, kada je Stphen Hales izmerio arterijski krvni pritisak pomo}u zaka~enog manometra na karaotidnu arteriju konja. 1 Ovo je bio i inderektni na~in pra}enja cirkulatornog volumena. Od toga vremena nau~ni razvoj i nova tehani~ka dostignu}a su omogu}ila stvaranje sve preciznijih na~ina za procenu hemodinamike i veli~ine cirkulatornog volumena. (Tabela 2) Pri nadoknadi te~nosti kod bolesnika u perioperativnom periodu potrebno je analizirati mnoge faktore koji uti~u na balans te~nosti (Tabel 1) Medjutim, navedeni na~in pra}enja stanja bolesnika nije dovoljan za ta~nu procenu cirkulacije i korekciju poreme}enog balansa te~nosti, posebno kod te{kih bolesnika. Zbog toga se za procenu hidroelektrolitnog statusa koristi hemodinamski monitoring. (Tabela 2). Pra}enje i korigovanje volumena na osnovu informacija dobijenih egzaktnim monitoringom i ta~no kontrolisanje hemodinamike sa preciznom nadoknadom cirkulatornog volumena danas je determinisano kao direktno-ciljana terapija (Goal-Directed Therapy). 2 Cilj ovako vodjene terapije je postizanje optimalnog sr~anog u~inka 3, dok je krajnji cilj postizanje adekvatne perfuzije i oksigenacije u svim tkivima u organizmu odnosno, usakladjenje izmedju dotoka i potro{nje kiseonika. Ovakav pristup korekciji poreme}enog hidroelektrolitnog balansa daje mogu}nosti za vra}anje hemodinamike u fiziolo{ke okvire. Uzimaju}i u obzir koncept Goal-Directed Therapy, postavlja se pitanje modaliteta monitoringa u perioperativnom periodu. Monitoring mo e imati razli~ite oblike - modalitete: od neinvazivnog pra}enja hemodinamike (sr~ana frekvenca i krvni pritisak) i plu}ne funkcije (disajni volumen i frekvenca, oksimetrija itd) do veoma slo enog i invazivnog monitoringa. Monitoring predstavlja skup mera kojima se prikupljaju analize u cilju sagledavanja stanja bolesika i preduzimanja daljih postupaka za odr anje njegovog stanja ili korekciju pore-me}aja. Stoga, vrsta monitoringa prvenstveno mora zavisiti od rizika koji postoji u toku operacije za nastanak sr~anih i drugih komplikacija.

2 68 R. Sindjeli} i sar. ACI Vol. LVI Uop{teno, rizik od smrtnog ishoda u toku anestezije je mali ali u pojedinim grupama on mo e da iznosi ~ak i 33% 3. Kriterijumi za procenu veli~ine operativnog rizika uklju~uju tri grupe faktora: * Faktori rizika koji postoje kod bolesnika 3,4,5 * Postoje}i funkcionalni kapacitet bolesnika 4 i * Faktori rizika koji su vezani za samu operaciju (Tabela 3) 5,6,7 Na osnovu rizika od komplikacija, kod manjih (minornih) operacija dovoljan je najmanji mogu}i neinvazivni monitoring hemodinamike i respiratornog sistema. Medjutim, ostali bolesnici, koji se podvrgavaju rizi~nijim operacijama, zahtevaju ta~nu evaluaciju hemodinamike i nadoknade te~nosti odnosno slo eni monitoring. Pri razmatranju modaliteta monitoringa treba uzeti u obzir i druge ~injenice. To su strategijski pravci i doktrina koja postoji u jednoj instituciji 7. Oni treba da budu inkorporirani u protokol koji daje najbolji rezultat le~enja. Naime, pri izboru monitoringa treba voditi ra~una da on treba da bude sredstvo koje }e poslu iti izle~enju. Istovremeno on ne sme bolesniku da na{kodi. Stoga je preobiman monitoring iznad nivoa kojim }e se smanjiti rizik u toku operacije suvi{an. Planirani hemodinamski monitoring treba uspostaviti pre po~etka operacije. Dilema vezana za stepen invazivnosti kori{}enog monitoringa je danas veoma aktuelna. Na primer, pitanje kori{}enja plu}nog arterijskog katetera, njegov zna~aj za izle~enje bolesnika i primena manje invazivnih ali sigurnih tehnologija koje daju dobar uvid u hemodinamiku postaje sve prisutnije 9,10. Takodje je sve ~e{}a primena neinvazivnog pra}enja hemodinamike kao npr. merenje CO pomo}u elektri~ne impendance i sl. Ovakvi sistemi se pored neinvazivnosti karakteri{u jednostavno{}u i povoljnim ekonomskim efektom 1,11. Iinvazivni monitoring krvnog pritiska - pretstavlja jednostavan na~in pra}enja veli~ine vaskularnog volumena kontinuiranim pra}enjem vrednosti i varijacija krvnog pritiska u toku mehani~ke ventilacije plu}a (Slika 1). Invazivno merenje vrednosti krvnog pritiska u toku anestezije daje mogu}nost za ta~niju hemodinamsku evaluaciju nego povremeno neinvazivno merenje. Arterijska linija istovremeno predstavlja put uzimanja krvi za gasne i biohemijske analize. U toku mehani~ke ventilacije plu}a respiratorne varijacije pulsnog talasa ukazuju na hidroelektrolitni status. Za vreme mehani~kog inspirijuma pove}canje torakalnog pritiska smanjuje venski povra}aj u desnu komoru (RV) odn. preload uz istovremeno pove}anje afterloada. Obe pojave smanjuju udarni volumen RV, koji ima minimalnu vrednost na kraju inspiratorne faze. Inspiratorna redukcija RV ejekcije vodi smanjenju punjenja levog srca sa zak{anjenjem od 2 do 3 sr~ana ciklusa zbog dugog vremena prolaska krvi kroz plu}a 12. Stoga redukcija LV preloada izaziva smanjenje LV udarnog volumena (SV) i pulsnog pritiska (PP) a koji je najmanji u fazi ekspirijuma. Ovaj efekat je vi{e nagla{en za sistolni pritisak i poja~an je u stanju hipovolemije. Pored navedenih, jo{ dva mehanizma mogu uticati na promene SV u toku mehani~ke Insp irijum Insp irijum E ksp irijum E ksp irijum SLIKA 1 ANALIZA PROMENA PULSNOG TALASA Specifican f. Srcana kalibracije frekvenca (odreden termodilucijom ) Površina pulsnog talasa Aortna Oblik krive rastegljivost pulsnog talsa SLIKA 2 IZRA^UNAVANJE CO POMO]U PULSNOG TALASA SLIKA 3 PLU]NI ARTERIJSKI KATETER (SWAN-GANZ)

3 Br. 1 Pra}enje perioperativnog balansa te~nosti 69 Grejac SLIKA 4 SISTEM ZA CCO Termometar SLIKA 5 VOLUMETRIJSKO PRA]ENJE HEMODINAMIKE SLIKA 6 KRIVA RAZREDJENJA IZ KOJE SE IZRA^UNAVA CO I DRUGI PARAMETRI ventilacije. To su istiskivanje krvi iz alveolarnih krvnih sudova u toku inspirijuma usled pove}anog pritiska na ove {to izaziva pove}anje LV preloada i inspiratorno pove}anje pleuralnog pritiska koje mo e smanjiti LV afterload i stoga olak{ati LV ejekciju. Prvi mehanizam u stanju hipervolemije i drugi u stanju LV sistolne disfunkcije mogu izazvati slabo pove}anje LVSV u toku inspirijuma. Medjutim, eksperimentalni podaci pokazuju da su ovi mehanizmi od minornog zna~aja za funkciju LV ~ak i stanju hipervolemije i LV disfunkcije. 13,14,15 Kvantitativno izra~unavanje PP i SV bazirano je na analizi oblika i veli~ine talasa PP i njihovih varijacija pomo}u aparata koji analizira oblik arterijskog pulsnog talasa (Pulse-Contour Cardiac Output - PiCCO) (Slika 2). Njime se mogu odrediti maksimalni pulsni pritisak (PPmax), i udarni volumen (SVmax) i minimalni pulsni pritisak (PPmin) i udarni volumen (SVmin). Varijacije PP (PPV) se izra avaju u % promene za vreme respiratornog ciklusa po formuli: PPV (%) = (PPmax - PPmin)/ Pmean. Srednja vrednost pulsnog pritiska (Pmean) predstavlja srednju vrednost PP (dijastolnog i sistolnog u inspirijuma i ekspirijuma). Po istom principu se izra~unavaju i varijacije SV (SVV%). 16 Oblik arterijskog pulsnog talasa zavisi od CO, karakteristika arterijskog stabla i mesta gde se meri pritisak. 17,18 Sistem za kontinuirano merenje CO pomo}u analize oblika pulsnog talasa mo e funkcionisati ukoliko se prethodno termodiluciono kalibri{e. Time se odredjuju konstanta kalibracije i konstanta aortne rastegljivosti (compliance) ~ije su vrednosti inkorporirane u formulu CO. Ukoliko se osobine vaskularnog stabla promene potrebno je novo kalibrisanje. Izra~unavanje CO je jednostavno (proizvod udarnog volumena - SV i sr~ane frekvence HR). SV se izra~unava iz povr{ine koja se nalazi ispod pulsnog pritiska. Druge veli~ine koje se mogu izmeriti iz arterijskog pulsnog talasa su: 1. dpmax (maksimalni dp/dt) brzina skra}enja komore (indeks kontraktilnosti levog srca) i 2. Varijacije udarnog volumena (SVV). Meri se u toku 30 sec. SV max i SV min i iz ovih vrednosti se izra~unava SVV = SVmax-Svmin/SV min. SVV se mo e koristiti za procenu promene SV pri administraciji te~nosti. Promene SVVmogu biti velike (15%) i male (12%). Administracija te~nosti kod velikih SVV promena rezultira pove}anjem EDV i SV (postoji pozitivan odgovor na te~nost). Ukoliko su promene SVV male, administracija te~nosti }e biti pra}ena malim promenama SV. Analizu promena SV i PP nije mogu}e izvesti kod svih bolesnika. Metod je poptuno limitiran kod bolesnika koji imaju poreme}aj sr~anog ritma, koji nisu na mehani~koj ventilaciji plu}a i nisu sedirani. 12 Kako PP ne zavisi samo od SV ve} i od arterijske complance, velike promene u PP se mogu registrovati uprkos malih promena LVSV ukoliko je sni ena arterijska compliance (npr. kod starih osoba sa perifernim vaskularnim oboljenjem). Sa druge strane male promene PP mogu se registrovati uprkos velikih promena LVSV ukoliko je arterijska complinace velika (mladje osobe). 12

4 70 R. Sindjeli} i sar. ACI Vol. LVI VigileoTM (Edwards Lifesciences) sistem za analizu pulsnog talasa koristi FloTracTM sensor koji se konektira za arterijsku liniju i centralni venski kateter koji registruje oksimetriju. On omogu}ava kontinuirano merenje CO i CI (CCO/CCI), udarnog volumena (SV/SVI), varijacije udarnog volumena (SVV). Zahvaljuju}i neinvazivnosti i nepotrebnoj kalibraciji sistem se pokazaio pogodnim za evaluaciju cirkulatornog volumena tokom sprovodjenja direktno-ciljane terapije te~no{}u (Goal-Directed Fluid Therapy). 19,20,21 Plu}ni arterijski (Swan Ganz) kateter je u upotrebi od godine i koristi se u dijagnosti~ke svrhe sa ciljem registrovanja hemodinamskih veli~ina, pra}enja rezultata terapije i evaluacije efekata medikamenata. 22 Plu}ni kateterom (Slika 3) se meri pritisak u {upljinama desnog srca, plu}noj arteriji i pritisak punjenja levog srca ("wedge" pritisak - PCWP). Centralni venski pritisak (CVP) i PCWP se ~esto koriste za merenje punjenja desnog i levog srca odn. preloada, pod uslovom da ne postoje stanja koja dodatno uti~u na vrednost ovih veli~ina. U takvim stanjima se ove veli~ine ne mogu koristiti. Kada je u pitanju CVP {to su COPD i hroni~na plu}na oboljenja pra}ena plu}nom hipertenzijom, valvularna oboljenja posebno mitralna stenoza i plu}ni edem. Termodilucionom tehnikom meri se vrednost CO, izra~unava CI i drugi parametari koji se kalkuli{u iz vrednosti pritisaka i CO. Plu}ni kateteri sa fiberopti~kim vlaknom omogu}avaju kontinuirano merenje saturacije hemoglobina u me{anoj venskoj krvi (SvO2), pomo}u koje se indirektno procenjuje veli~ina CO. Pra}enje vrednosti CVP i PCWP pomo}u plu}nog katetera sa danas {iroko primenjuje u klini~koj praksi. Tokom merenja ovih vrednosti va no je da se dobijene vrednosti interpretiraju u kontekstu klini~kog stanja bolesnika. Iako se merenje hemodinamike pomo}u Swan-Ganz-ovog katetera jo{ smatra "gold standardom", ova tehnika sve vi{e biva potiskivana novim, manje agresivnim na~inima merenja hemodinamike. 9,10 Noviji na~in kontinuiranog pra}enja CO (CCO) pomo}u posebnog plu}nog katetera zasnivaju se na "diluciji" temperature (Slika 4). Naime specifi~ni plu}ni kateter sadr i u proksimalnom delu greja~ u obliku navoja koji je sme{ten u delu koji se nalazi u desnom srcu. Na vrhu katetera se nalazi detektor temperature tako da se na osnovu sni enja temparture krvi neprekidno konstrui{e termodiluciona kriva i izra~unava CO. Pored ovoga, ovim sitemom se izra~unavaju i drugi parametri kojima se mo e procenjivati stanje volumena u organizmu kao {to su end-dijastolni volumen i ejekciona frakcija desne komore (RVEDV, RVEF) i saturacija me{ane venske krvi (SvO2). Ova tehnologija merenja CO je pogodnija nego ona sa ubrizgavanjem hladne te~nosti tokom termodilucionog merenja jer nije pra}ena poreme}ajima ritma. 23 Volumetrijsko merenje hemodinamike - Lichtwarck- Aschoff i sar (1992) su konstruisali na~in za odredjivanje veli~ine cirkulatornog volumena i preloada merenje intratorakalnog krvnog volumena (ITBV), indeksa intra- Ejekciono vreme SLIKA 7 TRANSEZOFAGEALNI DOPPLER Brzina Fiziološki Srcana slabost Brzina protoka (VTI) Povecana SVR Vreme SLIKA 8 PROMENE DOPPLER SIGNALA U RAZLI^ITIM STAN- JIMA SLIKA 9 TEE PROCENA LVEDA

5 Br. 1 Pra}enje perioperativnog balansa te~nosti 71 SLIKA 10 TEE AORTNA I MITRALNA VALVULA SLIKA 11 MERENJE CO POMO]U IMPENDANCE torakalnog krvnog volumen (ITBVI) i koli~ina ekstravaskularne plu}ne vode (EVLW) (Slika 5). 24 Ovim sistemima se istovremeno kontinuirano meri CO Stewart-Hamiltonovom jednacinom (SV x f). Algoritam izra~unavanja LVSV meri povr{inu ispod sistolnog dela talasa (od kraja dijastole do kraja ejekcione faze) i deli je sa aortnom compliancom (Slika 6). Princip volumetrijskog merenja termodilucionom (PiCCO) metodom: posle ubrizgavanja bolusa u centralnu vensku liniju nastaje sni enje (razredjenje) temperature kako krvna struja prolazi kroz pojedine cirkulatorne odeljke na putu do periferne arterije, a to istovremeno odgovara pojedinim segmentima termodilucione krive. Sistem funkcioni{e zahvaljuju}i merenju i pra}enju oblika krive atrterijskog pulsa posle ubrizgavanja kontrasnog sredstva (Sakka et al, 1999). 25 Postoje dva sistema. U sistemu PiCCO (PULSION Medical Systems AG, Munich, Germany) kao kontrasno sredstvo se koristi hladan fiziolo{ki rastvor (razredjenje temperatiure) a u sistemu PulseCO (LiDCO Ltd, London, England) rastvor litijumhlorida. Sistem PiCCO koristi standadrdnu centralnu vensku liniju sa temperaurnim senzorom u distalnom delu katetera, i termodilucioni senzor u arterijskom kateteru - kojeg treba plasirati u visokoproto~nu arteriju (femoralnu ili brahijalnu). Dobijena termodiluciona kriva je du a i ravnija nego kriva dobijena plu}nim kateterom ali na nju nema uticaj respiratorni ciklus (Slika 6). Volumetrijskim metodom se ne mere pritisci ve} volumeni i CO. Problemi pri merenju mogu nastati u slu~aju postojanja sr~anog {anta, trikuspidalne ili plu}ne regurgitacije, u stanjima temperaturnih varijacija tela (posle EKK ili administriranja hladne te~nosti) i tokom ventilacije pozitivnim pritiskom. Kako se volumetrijskim merenjem preloada mo e odrediti veli~ina plu}ne vode (EVLW) ovaj sistem je koristan tokom evaluacije razli~itih plu}nih oboljenja (plu}ni edem, ARDS, ventiolacionih poreme}aja) premda je potrebna pa ljiva interpretacija rezultata u slu~aju razli~itih plu}nih oboljenja (embolija, plu}na konsolidacija...) 16 Transezofagealni Doppler - je baziran na Dopplerovom efektu - registrovanju promena talasne frekvence ultrazvuka u zavisnosti od brzine kretanja krvi kroz descedentnu aortu. Vrh sonde koja emituje i registruje ultrazvuk u ezofagusu pozicionira se neposredno iza descedentne aorte (Slika 7). Za izra~unavanje CO je potrebno znati veli~inu popre~nog preseka descedentne aorte (CSA). Ona se mo e izmeriti pomo}u sonde ili se prora~unava iz tablica na osnovu fizi~kih karkteristika bolesnika (uzrast, visina, i pol). 26 Vrednost SV se dobija pomo}u brzine protoka (integral brzine protoka - VTI), ejekcionog vremena i CSA. VTI pretstavlja rastojanje u aorti gde se stub krvi projektuje u toku jednog sr~anog ciklusa. Stoga, VTI direktno odgovara sistolnoj funkciji komore. Na osnovu toga se mo e izra~unati CO iz slede}e jedna~ine: CO = VTI (cm) x CSA (cm 2 ) = SV (cm 3 ). Vrednosti CO dobijene Doppler tehnikom dobro koreli{u sa vrednostima dobijenim termodilucionom metodom pomo}u Swan-Ganz ovog katetera. 27 Na slici je prikazana primena transezofagealnog Dopplera i merenje CO: (Slika 7a) sonda u ezofagusu u nepostrednoj blizini descedentne torakalne aorte (Slika 7b): karakteristi~an talas dobijen iz aorte sa izmerenim vrednostima. U stanjima slabosti levog srca dolazi do promene izgleda talasa a {to se mo e i kvantifikovati. Na slici su prikazane promene brzine protoka u stanju smanjene sr~ane kontraktilnosti (redukovana visina talasa i smanjena brzina protoka) i u stanju pove}anja SVR (smanjena visina talasa i uzana osnova) (Slika 8). Prednosti ovog metoda su: * Minimalna invazivnost * Brza insercija aparata i brzo dobijanje rezultata * Odredjivanje nije komplikovano a edukacija nije dugotrajna

6 72 R. Sindjeli} i sar. ACI Vol. LVI TABELA 1 ^INIOCI PERIOPERATIVNOG BALANSA TE^NOSTI Preoperativno stanje bolesnika Medikamentozni tretman, ranija oboljenja Stanje preoperativne hidratacije Podaci vezani za operaciju Vrsta i trajanje operacije Koli~ina izgubljene krvi Gubitak u tre}i prostor Podaci vezani za anesteziju Vrsta i trajanje anestezije Nadoknada te~nosti i krvi Vrsta monitoringa Intraoperativno kretanje parametera Fizi~ko stanje bolesnika Fizikalni pregled Parametri hemodinamike Laboratorijski parametri Manjkavosti metode su: * Interferencija sa gastri~nom sondom pa stoga postoji mogu}nost gubitka pozicije pri pomeranju ove * Kod pojedinih bolesnika kontrainidkovano * Ne postoji potpuna preciznost pri merenju Transezofagealna (transtorakalna) ehokardiogtrafija - Ehokardiograf je prvi put upotrebljena sredinom XX veka (Keidel god) ali do klini~ke primene su bile potrebne jo{ gotovo tri decenije, tako da ova tehnologija, koja se paralelno razvijala u Evropi, Japanu i Americi, po~inje da se primenjuje u drugoj polovini osamdesetih godina. 28 Ehokardiografija je sonografija srca koja koristi ultrazvu~nu tehniku za dvodimenzionalnu vizuelizaciju ise~aka pojedinih struktura srca. U zavisnosti od mesta postavljanja sonde mo e biti transtorakalna i transezofagealna (TEE koja se {iroko perioperativno primenjuje). TEE koristi jedan od ~etiri oblika ehokardiografije: * M-mode (najednostavniji oblik koji daje vi{e obrise nego sliku sr~anih struktura) * 2-D tehnika (dvodimenzionalno vidjenje sr~anih struktura) * Kolor Doppler (koristi razli~ite boje da bi se prikazao razli~it smer krvi) i * Doppler echokardiografija (meri se protok krvi kroz srce i krvne sudove) Kvantifikacija preloada putem TEE se mo e posti}i merenjem LV end-dijastolne povr{ine (LVEDA) ili volumena (LVEDV). LVEDA je determinisana najkra}im rastojanjem papilarnih mi{i}a u srednjoj zoni. Za izra~unavanje LVEDV su potrebna ehokardiografska merenja u razli~itom polo aju. Ova kalkulacija je bazirana na Simpsonovom algoritmu koji pretpostavlja da se komora sastoji od zbira malih cilindara i zarubljene elipse. 29 Zbog nesigurnosti rezultata, LVEDA se naj~e{}e koristi za procenu LV preloada i kod odraslih osoba iznosi 10 do 20 cm. 16,30 Na slici 9 ehokardiografske rubove leve komore ~ine papilarni mi{i}i koji su manuelno obele eni i koji ~ine region interesa (plava linija). Automatsko odredjivanje rubova (ABD) registrovanjem kontakta krvi sa zidom komorom (crvena linija) se tokom svakog otkucaja ispisuje (zelena linija). LVEDA se defini{e kao najve}a povr{ina leve komore u toku sistole. SA (stroke area) pretstavlja razliku LVEDA - LVESA u istom ciklusu. 31 Pored mogu}nosti hemodinamskog merenja, zna~aj TEE je u mogu}nosti pra}enja ventrikularne funkcije, valvularnog aparata abnormalnosti u kretanju zida komore, punjenju srca, i blagovremenoj proceni terapije te~nostima (Slika 10). Detektovanje "kissing" papilarnih mi{i}a (end-sistolnog kontakta) je patognomi~no za hipovolemiju. U stanju hipervolemije leva komora je distendirana sa smanjenom funkcijom i mitralnom isnuficijencijom. Na osnovu preporuka ACC/ASA/ESA, primena TEE je indikovana u kardiohirurgiji i to prvenstveno tokom operacija razli~itih valvularnih oboljenja. 32,33 Neinvazivno merenje CO - postoji nekoliko na~ina neinvazivnog merenja CO koji sve vi{e pobudjuju interesovanje zbog jednostavnog na~ina merenja ali i povoljnih ekonomskih efekata. Tehnika re-breathing CO2 se mo e sprovesti samo kod intubiranih bolesnika a zasniva se na udisanju CO2, merenju promena izdahnutog CO2 i proceni sadr aja CO2 u end-kapilarnoj krvi plu}a. 1 Pored CO2 kori{}eni su i drugi gasovi za izra~unavanje CO. Merenje CO pomo}u elektri~ne impendance (otpora), zasnovano na PhysioFlowTM tehnologiji, kojom se propu{ta naizmeni~na struja male ja~ine kroz grudni ko{. Tehniku je po~eo da razvija Jean Bour 80-tih godina u Francuskoj. Prvi sistem je konstruisan godine dok je 1995 godine po~ela klini~ka primena. Aplikovana struja se primarno rasporedjuje u krvi koja ima najve}u konduktivnost u odnosu na ostale strukture. Veli~ina promene impendance, koja se meri u toku sistole, dozvoljava da se prora~una vrednost CO i drugih parametara hemodinamike (sr~ana frekvenca, SV, CI, indeks kontraktiliti, odnos ranog punjenja komora - indicator preloada, EF, dijastolni volumen, krvni pritisak, SVR itd.). Sistem jednostavno funkcioni{e tako {to se 6 elektroda postavi na grudni ko{, preko kojih se aplikuje struja i registruje otpor pri njenom proticanju (Slika 11). Dobijeni rezultati se grafi~ki i numeri~ki prikazuju na monitoru. Vi{e studija je kompariralo bioimpedancu sa drugim metodama izra~unavanja CO i dok su jedne bile afirmativne po pitanju ovakvog monitoringa 6 druge su dobile nekonzistentne rezultate. 1 Ipak, veruje da je na ovaj na~in

7 Br. 1 Pra}enje perioperativnog balansa te~nosti 73 TABELA 2 SAVREMENI HEMODINAMSKI MONITORING Monitoring, parametar Skra}enica Standardne vrednosti Invazivni krvni pritisak Vizuelna evaluacija varijacije pritiska Arterijske gasne analize Oblik pulsnog talasa Varijacije pulsnog pritiska MPPV <10-13% Varijacije udarnog volumena SVV <10-13% Centralni venski kateter Centralni venski pritisak CVP 2/8 mmhg Centralna venska oksigenacija ScvO 2 >70% Invazivni hemod. monitoring ("gold standard") Plu}ni arterijski kateter Plu}ni okluzivni pritisak PCWP 8-18 mmhg Sr~ani indeks CI 2-3,5l/min/m 2 Indeks udarnog volumena SVI 35-50ml/m 2 Kontinuirani end-dijastolni vol indeks CEDVI ml/m 2 Me{ana venska saturacija SvO 2 >75% Manje invazivni hemodinamski monitoring Transpulmonalni termodilucioni Globalni end-dijastolni volumen indeks GEDVI ml/m 2 Intratorakalni blood volumen indeks ITBVI ml/m 2 Ekstravaskularna koli~ina plu}ne vode EVLW <10 ml/kg Transezofagealni Doppler Merenje aortnog protoka Tranezofageal, transtorakal ehokardiografija End-dijastolna povr{ina EDA End-dijastolni volumen Nainvazivno merenje CO Plu}na razmena gasova (CO2) Elektri~na impendanca EDV mogu}e pravilno proceniti promene vrednosti CO i hemodinamskih parametara pa stoga ovaj monitoring sve vi{e privla~i pa nju zahvaljuju}i jednostavnosti primene, neinvazivnosti i veoma povoljnom materijalnom efektu. 1 Manjkavost ovog sistema je da se ne mo e koristiti u toku operacije srca dok je otvoren grudni ko{. Elektri~na velocimetrija sli~no prethodno opisanom na~inu, gde se pomo}u postavljenih elektroda na povr{ini grudnog ko{a meri CO. Elektri~na velocimetrija je bazirana na teoriji da promene poravnanja eritrocita u odnosu na zami{ljenu orijentacionu liniju u toku dijastole u odnosu na ovakve promene u toku sistole izazivaju pove}anje elektri~ne konduktivnosti krvi. CO i SV se izra~unavaju na osnovu merenja brzine promene konduktivnosti. Tehnika je komparabilna po rezultatima sa transezosfagealnom ehokardiografijom i tremodilucionom tehnikom odredjivanja CO. 1

8 74 R. Sindjeli} i sar. ACI Vol. LVI Procena veli~ine mikrocirkulacije - Odr anje tkivne mikrocirkulacije obezbedjuje adekvatnu tkivnu oksigenaciju je kona~ni cilj terapije volumenom. Razli~ite tehnike su razvijene za direktnu vizelizaciju mikrocirkulacije. Nailfold mikroviodeoskopija je bila prva tehnika. 16 Medjutim, zbog nedostataka jasnih rezultata i promene mikrocirkulacije u razli~itim uslovima ovakve tehnologije za sada ostaju u eksperimentalnom domenu. Opisane su i razne druge tehnike merenja perioperativne perfuzije. Gastrointestinalna tonometrija eluca i sigmoidnog creva (Mythen i sar. 1994)34, laserska Doppler flowmetrija pra}enja splanhi~ne perfuzije (Corbett i sar. 2000). 35 Mikrodijalizna katetetrizacija (Edsander-Nord i sar. 2002), 36 infracrvena spektrometrija (Thorniley i sar. 1998), 37 transkutana oksimetrija (Velmahos i sar. 1998), 38 tkivna ph-metrija (Raskin i sar 1983) 39 su kori{}ene za merenja tkivne perfuzije. Laboratorijska evoluacija cirkulatornog volumena uklju~uje ta~no odredjene laboratorijske testove (Point-of- Care Testing) ~ije pra}enje daje najbolje terapijske efekte (Tabela 3). 40 Za procenu veli~ine cirkulatornog volumena se koriste slede}i laboratorijski rezultati: *Arterijske gasne analize (metaboli~ka acidoza, ph, nivo laktata i bazni eksces - BE) *Laboratorijske analize bubre ne funkcije (kreatinin, urea, frakcija ekskrecije Na, osmolarnost urina...) *Laboratorijske analize sr~ane slabosti (mo dani natriureti~ni peptid - BNP) SUMMARY ASSESMENT OF PERIOPERATIVE FLUID BALANCE Careful assessment of the fluid balance is required in the perioperative period since appropriate fluid therapy is essential for successful patient s outcome. Haemodynamic monitoring allows understanding the physiology of the circulation and changes of fluid balance in the perioperative period. This is diagnostic aid and guide for fluid replacement therapy. Patient s volume status is frequently assessed by different haemodynamic variables that could be targeted as the endpoints for fluid therapy and resuscitation. Fluid balance is the crucial factor in the maintenance of haemodynamic stability, tissue oxygenation and organ function. When the haemodynamic monitoring is applied in a rigorous and consistent manner, it reduces mortality and length of stay as well as costs incurred. There are a number of tests which describe the effectiveness of the invasive haemodynamic monitoring procedures usage. Since the pulmonary artery catheter (PAC) had been introduced into clinical practice it was considered as a golden standard for cardiac output measurements, haemodynamic and fluid balance assessment. Nevertheless, in previous 10 years new minimally invasive and noninvasive simple techniques for haemodynamic monitoring and patient s hydroelectricity status evaluation have been developed. They can replace PAC under different clinical circumstances and some of these techniques TABELA 3 KLASIFIKACIJA OPERACIJA PREMA RIZIKU OD SR^ANE SLABOSTI ADAPTIRANA NA OSNOVU ACC/AHA PREPORUKA Minorne operacije (sr~ane komplikaicje <1%) Endoskopske procedure Ambulantne operacije Operacije dojke i povr{ne intervencije Operacije oka Manje plasti~ne i rekonstruktivne operacije Intermedijarne operacije (sr~ane komplikacije 1-5%) Manje vaskularne op. uklju~uju}i karotidnu endarterektomiju Abdominalne i torakalne operacije Neurohirurgija ORL procedure Ortopedska hirurgija Prostatektomija Velike operacije (sr~ane komplikacije >5%) Hitne intermedijalne i velike operacije Aortne i velike vaskularne operacije Prolongirane operacije Operacije pra}ene velikim promenama te~nosti i krvarenjem Operacije sa nestabilnom hemodinamikom Kardiohirur{ke intervencije Operacije pra}ene velikim morbiditetom additionally allow a more refined perioperative fluid assessment. The aim of this article is to describe actually technique of haemodynamic measurement and assessment of fluid status and therapy in perioperative period. Key words: fluid, balance, perioperative BIBLIOGRAFIJA 1. Jhanji S, Dawson J, Pearse MR: Cardiac output monitoring: basic science and clinical application. Anaesthesia 2008; 63: Gordon A, Russell J, Goal directed therapy: how long can we wait? Crit Care 2005;9:

9 Br. 1 Pra}enje perioperativnog balansa te~nosti 75 TABELA 4 LABORATORIJSKA EVALUACIJA HEMODINAMIKE Arterijske gasne analize Metaboli~ka acidoza (ph) < Laktati <2mEq/l Bazni eksces (BE) Lab. parametri bubre ne funkcije Kreatinin mmol/l ( mg/dl) Urea mmol/l (6-25mg/dl) Prerenalna azotemija Renalna azotemija BUN : Creat odnos >20:1 10<1-20<1 Ekskrecija <1% >2% Na=(Nau x Cratp): (Nap x Creatu) x 100 Na u urinu <10-20mEq/l 20-40mEq/l Osmolalnost urina >450 mosm/kg <350 mosm/kg Parametri sr~ane slabosti Mo dani natriureti~ni peptid (BNP) <125pg/ml 3. Shoemaker WC, Appel PL, Kram HB. Tissue oxygen debt as a determinant of lethal and nonlethal postoperative organ failure. Crit Care Med 1988; 94: Hlatky P, Boineau RE, Higginbotham MB, et al. A brief selfadministered questionnaire to determine functional capacity (the Duke Activity Status Index). Am J Cardiol 1989; 64: Eagle KA, Brundage BH, Chaitman BR, et al. Guidelines for perioperative cardiovascular evaluation for noncardiac surgery. Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation 1996; 93: Eagle KA, Berger PB, Calkins H, et al. ACC/AHA guideline update for perioperative cardiovascular evaluation for noncardiac surgeryexecutive summary. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on practice guidelines (Committee to update 1996 guidelines on perioperative cardiovascular evaluation for noncardiac surgery). Circulation, 2002; 105: Ouattara A, Niculescu M, Ghazouani S, et al:predictive performance and variability of the cardiac anesthesia risk evaluation score. Anesthesiology 2004; 100: Spahn D, Chassot PG.: CON: Fluid restriction for cardiac patients during major noncardiac surgery should be replaced by goal-directed intravascular fluid administration. Anaest Analg 2006; 102: Shah MR, Hasselblad V, Stevenson LW, et al.: Impact of the pulmonary artery catheter in critically ill patients: meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. JAMA 2005: 294: Harvey S, Young D, Brampton W, et al.: Pulmonary artery catheters for adult patients in intensive care. Cochrane Database Syst Rev Jul 19;3:CD Shoemaker WC, Wo CC, Chien LC, et al. : Evaluation of invasive and noninvasive hemodynamic monitoring in trauma patients. J Trauma 2006; 61: Michard F, Teboul JL: Using heart-lung interactions to assess fluid responsiveness during mechanical ventilation. Crit Care, 2000; 4: Pizov R, Ya ari Y, Perel A: The arterial pressure waveform during acute ventricular failure and synchronized external chest compression. Anesth Analg 1989; 68: Szold A, Pizov R, Segal E, Perel A: The effect of tidal volume and intravascular volume state on systolic pressure variation in ventilated dogs. Intensive Care Med 1989; 15: Pizov R, Cohen M, Weiss Y, Segal E, Cotev S, Perel A: Positive endexpiratory pressure-induced hemodynamic changes are reflected in the arterial pressure waveform. Crit Care Med 1996; 24: Ganter MT, Hofer CK: Coagulation monitoring: current techniques and clinical use of viscoelastic pointof-care coagulation devices. Anesth Analg 2008; 106:

10 76 R. Sindjeli} i sar. ACI Vol. LVI 17. Hofer CK, Muller SM, Furrer S et al.: Stroke Volume and Pulse Pressure Variation for Prediction of Fluid Responsiveness in Patients Undergoing Off-Pump Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting. Chest. 2005; 128: Berkenstadt H, Friedman Z, Preisman S et al: Pulse pressure and stroke volume variations during severe haemorrhage in ventilated dogs. Br J Anaesth 2005; 94: A Manecke G, Auger W. "Cardiac Output Determination From the Arterial Pressure Wave: Clinical Testing of a Novel Algorithm That Does Not Require Calibration." J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2007; 21: Berkenstadt H, Margalit N, Hadani M, et al. "Stroke Volume Variation as a Predictor of Fluid Responsiveness in Patients Undergoing Brain Surgery." Anesth Analg. 2001; 92: Reuter DA, Felbinger TW, Schmidt C, et al. "Stroke volume variations for assessment of cardiac responsiveness to volume loading in mechanically ventilated patients after cardiac surgery." Intensive Care Med 2002; 28: Goldberg, A, Hammerman, H, Petcherski, S, et al. Hyponatremia and long-term mortality in survivors of acute ST-elevation myocardial infarction. Arch Intern Med 2006; 166 : Santamore WP, Gefen N, Avramovich A, et al: Right atrial effects on right ventricular ejection fraction derived from thermodilution measurements. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2007; 21: Lichtwarck-Aschoff M, Zeravik J, Pfeiffer UJ.: Intrathoracic blood volume accurately reflects circulatory volume status in critically ill patients with mechanical ventilation. Intensive Care Med 1992;18: Sakka SG, Meier-Hellmann A.: Cardiac output measurements. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 1999; 13: Berton C, Cholley B.: Equipment review: new techniques for cardiac output measurement oesophageal Doppler, Fick principle using carbon dioxide, and pulse contour analysis. Crit Care. 2002; 6: Gan TJ, Soppitt, A, Maroof, M, et al: Goal-directed Intraoperative Fluid Administration Reduces Length of Hospital Stay after Major Surgery, Anestesiology 2002; 97: Feigenbaum H.: Evolution of Echocardiography. Circulation1996; 93: Schiller NB, Shah PM, Crawford M, et al.: Recommendations for quantitation of the left ventricle by two-dimensional echocardiography. American Society of Echocardiography Committee on Standards, Subcommittee on Quantitation of Two-Dimensional Echocardiograms. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 1989; 2: Hunt SA, Baker DW, Chin MH, et al: ACC/AHA Guidlines for the Evaluation and Management of Chronic Heart Failure in the Adult: Executive Summary A Report of the Americanh College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidlines (Committe tro Revise the 1995 Guidlines for the Evaluation and Management of Heart Failure): developed in Collaoration With the International Society for Heart and Lungs+ Transplanation; Endorsed by the Heart Failure Society of America. Circulation 2001; 104: Cannesson M, Slieker J, Desebbe O, et al: Prediction of fluid responsiveness using respiratory variations in left ventricular stroke area by transoesophageal echocardiographic automated border detection in mechanically ventilated patients. Crit Care 2006; 10 R Cheitlin MD, Armstrong WF, Aurigemma GP, et al. ACC/AHA/ASE 2003 Guideline Update for the Clinical Application of Echocardiography: summary article. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2003; 16: Shanewise JS, Cheung AT, Aronson S, et al. ASE/SCA guidelines for performing a comprehensive intraoperative multiplane transesophageal echocardiography examination: recommendations of the American Society of Echocardiography Council for Intraoperative Echocardiography and the Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesiologists Task Force for Certification in Perioperative Transesophageal Echocardiography. Anesth Analg 1999; 89: Mythen MG, Webb AR. Intra-operative gut mucosal hypoperfusion is associated with increased post-operative complications and cost. Intensive Care Med 1994; 20: Corbett EJ,, Barry BN, Pollard SG, et al. Laser Doppler flowmetry is useful in the clinical management of small bowel transplantation: the Liver Transplant Group. Gut 2000; 47: Edsander-Nord A, Rojdmark J, Wickman M. Metabolism in pedicled and free TRAM flaps: a comparison using the microdialysis technique. Plast Reconstr Surg 2002; 109: Thorniley MS, Sinclair JS, Barnett NJ, et al. The use of nearinfrared spectroscopy for assessing flap viability during reconstructive surgery. Br J Plast Surg 1998; 51: Velmahos GC, Demetriades D, Shoemaker WC, et al. Endpoints of resuscitation of critically injured patients: normal or supranormal? A prospective randomized trial. Ann Surg 2000; 232: Raskin DJ, Erk Y, Spira M, et al. Tissue ph monitoring in microsurgery: a preliminary evaluation of continuous tissue ph monitoring as an indicator of perfusion disturbances in microvascular free flaps. Ann Plast Surg 1983; 11: Rossi AF, Khan DM, Hannan R, et al: Goal-directed medical therapy and point-of-care testing improve outcomes after congenital heart surgery. Intensive Care Med 2005; 31:9-104

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