Physico-chemical Properties of Pancakes Made from an Instant Mix Containing Different Levels of Peanut (Arachis hypogaea) Flour

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1 Physico-chemicl Properties of Pnckes Mde from n Instnt Mix Contining Different Levels of Penut (Archis hypoge) Flour V.K. Yemmireddy, S. Chintgri, nd Y.C. Hung 1 * ABSTRACT Prtilly deftted penut flour hs proven to exhibit excellent functionl nd nutritionl properties in mny foods. In this study, penut pncke instnt mix ws developed by replcing portion of whet flour with penut flour; either 12% ft medium rost (12M) or 28% ft light rost (28L) penut flours t vrious levels (20, 30, 40 nd 50%) in strting pncke formultion. Effect of penut flour initil ft content nd degree of rosting on physico-chemicl properties such s viscosity of the btter, surfce color, texture nd composition of the pnckes were determined. In ddition, the effect of microwve reheting time on moisture loss, bulk density nd texture of the frozen penut pnckes ws investigted t 30% replcement level nd compred with commercil frozen pncke. Viscosity of the instnt mix btter mde with 12M penut flour ws higher thn the control wheres 28L ws lower thn the control. All penut pnckes were drker (lower L vlues) nd browner (lower hue ngle) thn the control. Texture profile nlysis properties such s hrdness, cohesiveness nd chewiness vlues decresed with incresing penut flour replcement level; wheres, springiness vlues incresed. Moisture, ft, sh nd protein content were incresed with incresing penut flour replcement level. Pnckes mde from 12M hve higher protein content thn the 28L smples t sme level of replcement. Frozen penut pnckes fter microwve reheting showed significnt moisture loss, incresed bulk density nd incresed hrdness nd chewiness. At tested conditions microwve reheting time of 20 or 30 s ws sufficient to chieve desirble eting chrcteristics (moisture loss, density nd texture) of penut pnckes when compred to the commercil frozen pnckes or freshly prepred penut pnckes. This study demonstrted tht the instnt penut pncke mix hs potentil s functionl brekfst food item to replce regulr whet pnckes. Key Words: Penut, pncke, penut flour, physico-chemicl properties. 1 Deprtment of Food Science nd Technology, University of Georgi, 1109 Experiment St., Griffin, GA 30223, USA. *Corresponding uthor e-mil: yhung@ug.edu Penut (Archis hypoge L) is one of the mjor oil seed crops cultivted in mny regions of the world. It is vlued s n importnt food protein source in the developing nd developed countries (Win et l., 2011). Penut flours re low ft, high protein functionl ingredients prepred from prtilly deftted, rosted penut kernels (Howrd nd Hung, 2010). Penut flour hs reltively high protein content, blnd flvor, nd light tn color which llows it to be incorported into wide rnge of foods (Priynwiwtkul et l., 1995). However, different types of rosted penut flours (i.e. medium, drk) will give chrcteristic penut flvor nd drker color when incorported in products t certin levels. The use of penut flour s protein supplement in brekfst cerels, pst, bked goods, suces, beverges, dressings nd mny other food products hs been extensively studied (Cheewprmong et l., 2002; Howrd et l., 2010, 2011; Ory nd Conkerton, 1983 nd others). Rheologicl, foming, emulsifying, nd wter holding properties of penut flour were lso investigted (Dvis et l., 2007; Ferreyr et l., 2007). Pnckes re very populr whet bsed brekfst food items consumed in different prts of the world with different regionl nmes. Conventionl whet pnckes hve been studied extensively on processing conditions for the improvement of texture nd flvor (Seguchi, 1993; Seguchi et l., 1998). Trend towrds gluten free, functionl foods for vrious helth resons led to the development of lterntive foods using composite flours. Studies hve been conducted in developing non-whet bsed gluten free pnckes from rice nd sweet potto flours (Shih et l., 2006). However, so fr no work hs been reported on the use of penut flour s replcement for whet flour in pncke preprtion to improve its nutritionl vlue. Also, informtion on the effect of rosting nd initil ft content of penut flour on vrious qulity ttributes of supplemented products is not well understood. Furthermore, increse in populrity of redy to het frozen brekfsts requires evlution of reheted frozen penut pnckes compred to fresh counterprts for better mrket or consumer cceptnce evlution. In this context, ny study focusing on developing nutrient dense penut pnckes nd investigting the effect of degree of rosting, ft content nd microwve Penut Science (2013) 40:

2 PEANUT PANCAKE 143 Tble 1. Typicl proximte composition of penut flours. Rost type Moisture Ft Protein Ash Crude fiber Crbohydrte Light/Medium, Light, The vlues in the bove tble were reported in % wet bsis s per Golden Penut Compny certificte of nlysis. reheting time on vrious qulity ttributes would be beneficil. Hence the objectives of the present study were to: i) Develop penut pncke instnt mix by replcing whet flour with penut flour in bsic pncke formultion, ii) Evlute the effect of rosting nd ft content of penut flour on physico-chemicl properties of penut pnckes, iii) Evlute the effect of microwve reheting time on the qulity of frozen penut pnckes. Mterils nd Methods Penut flours (Tble 1) with 12% initil ft nd light rosted (12L), 12% initil ft nd medium rosted (12M) nd 28% initil ft nd light rosted (28L) used in this study were provided by Golden Penut Compny (Alphrett, GA). Whet flour (White Lily s Light Bking All-Purpose Flour, Memphis, TN), grnulted sugr (Gret Vlue, Bentonville, AR), slt (Morton, Chicgo, IL), nonft milk powder (The Kroger Co., Cincinnti, OH), double cting bking powder (Gret Vlue, Bentonville, AR), bking sod (Gret Vlue, Bentonville, AR) nd penut oil (HollywoodH enriched gold penut oil, Boulder, CO) were purchsed from locl supermrkets in Griffin, GA nd whole egg powder ws purchsed from the Brry frm (Wpkonet, OH). Preliminry experiments were conducted by systemticlly replcing ll-purpose whet flour with 12L nd 28L penut flours t 0, 20, 30, 40 nd 50% levels in the strting pncke formultion. The mount of wter dded to the dry mix for btter preprtion incresed with incresing percentge of penut flour replcement to chieve desirble eting qulity of penut pnckes. Further, 12L penut flour ws replced with 12M penut flour in order to chieve resonble color consistency mong the pnckes from both 12M nd 28L penut flours. In the first stge of experiments, wet ingredients in the penut pncke formultion were replced with pproprite mounts of dry ingredients. Finl formultion ws djusted to hve uniform levels of ll the ingredients except whet flour, penut flour nd wter (Tble 2). For the second stge of experiments, the penut pncke preprtion protocol from dry mix ws developed (Fig. 1). Briefly, the procedure involves weighing the pproprite mounts of ll-purpose whet flour, penut flour, whole egg powder, non-ft dry milk powder, sugr, slt, bking powder nd bking sod for prticulr formultion. The weighed ingredients were sifted through three cup cpcity mesuring sifter (Broomwell s, Michign city, IN) for bout 1 min in clockwise direction to mke sure tht ll dry ingredients mixed thoroughly then gin re-mixed with blloon shped wire whisk for 2 min. Lter, mesured quntities of wter nd penut oil were dded to the instnt mix nd stirred with wire whisk for bout 2 min. Over mixing ws voided to minimize gluten formtion nd retin consistency of the btter. Viscosity of the btter ws mesured t room temperture (23 C) using Tble 2. Formultion for penut pncke using dry ingredients. Penut flour usge (%) Ingredient g All-purpose whet flour Penut flour Whole egg powder Nonft dry milk powder Slt Sugr Bking Powder Bking Sod Penut oil Wter Quntity of dded wter in penut pncke formultion is vrible bsed on the penut flour replcement level.

3 144 PEANUT SCIENCE Fig. 1. Penut pnckes preprtion steps. Brookfield viscometer (LVTD model, Stoughton, MA) with TC-3 spindle operting t 20 rpm. About 200 ml btter ws spooned into stndrd 600 ml low form griffin beker nd tpped for 20 times in order to remove entrpped ir bubbles in the btter. The viscosity (cp) of the leveled btter ws mesured for three different btches in triplicte. Finlly, bout 40 ml of the btter ws poured onto preheted griddle (Presto Griddle, Ntionl Presto Ind. Inc, Eu Clire, WI) tht hs been lightly spryed with n ntistick cooking spry (The Kroger Co, Cincinnti, OH). The pnckes were cooked for bout 1.5 min t 190 C until the bubbles on the upper surfce of the pncke were broken (s n indiction to the proper cooking) nd turned to the other side nd cooked for nother 1.5 min. The pnckes were cooled down to room temperture nd divided into two btches. One btch ws used to mesure physicl properties immeditely nd the other btch ws pcked in zip-lock freezer bgs nd freeze in 220 C freezer for composition nlysis nd mesuring the effect of microwve reheting times on qulity. Color mesurements were conducted using Hunter LbH Miniscn XE TM colorimeter (model 45/0-L, Hunter Assocites Lbortory, Reston, VA). Smples were held inside n nti-reflective glss continer (bout the sme size of the pncke), nd plced ginst the scnner to mesure the surfce color of ech pncke. The colorimeter ws stndrdized with blck nd white tiles. Color vlues were mesured in triplicte, for three different pnckes in ech btch; nd mesurements were recorded s L*, *, nd b*. Subsequently, hue ngle [tn 21 (b*/*)] were clculted. Texture profile nlysis (TPA) prmeters nmely hrdness, cohesiveness, springiness nd chewiness were derived from the force deformtion curves s described elsewhere (Plhr et l., 2006). Immeditely fter color mesurements, the sme pnckes were used for TPA. Approximtely 1cm 3 specimens (1 cm 2 surfce re nd 1 cm height) were cut from ech pncke using stinless steel cutting blde. A double bite compression test ws performed using n InstronH universl testing mchine (model 5542, Instron Corportion, Cnton, MA) equipped with flt hed cylindricl compression cell (25 mm dimeter, 22 mm height) nd 100 N lod cell. The smple specimen were plced on flt bse nd compressed to fixed height of 5 mm (50% compression) t crosshed speed of 10 mm/min then the crosshed returns to the initil detection point nd wit for 10 sec then gin compressed to the sme height in the second cycle under the sme test conditions. TPA ws conducted for three specimens in ech pncke smple nd for three pnckes in ech btch. For compositionl nlysis, the frozen pncke smples were llowed to come to room temperture in the freezer bg nd ground into homogenous mixture using kitchen food processor (GE 4- speed food processor, Model F, Wl-Mrt store Inc., Bentonville, AR). Moisture content ws determined on 5-g smples dried overnight in vcuum oven t 70 C under 25 mm Hg, following AACC method (AACC, 2000). The weight loss ws then used to clculte the moisture content. Moisture free smple ws used for ft nlysis using Goldfisch ft extrction pprtus, following the AACC method (AACC, 1976). Deftted smples were used to mesure nitrogen content using the Dums combustion method (LECO nlyzer, model , Wrrendle, PA) following AOAC method (AOAC, 2006). A fctor of 6.25 ws used to convert nitrogen to protein content (FAO, 1970). Ash content ws determined on 1.5-g smples using the AOAC method (AOAC, 2006). All the mesurements were mde in triplicte for ech btch. A totl of eight different penut pncke formultions (Tble 3) ech with three different btches were prepred using both 12M nd 28L t 20, 30, 40 nd 50% whet flour replcements. A control smple ws mde from formultion with 100% whet flour.

4 PEANUT PANCAKE 145 Tble 3. Approximte composition of penut pnckes. Smples Replcement b Ft Protein c Ash Crbohydrte d % Control g e 5.58h 3.26e M f 9.87f 3.97d 78.45b ef 11.87d 4.34c 75.64c def 13.70c 4.81b 72.70d de e 28L cd 9.38g 4.04d 76.52c c 10.74e 4.17cd 73.90d b 12.07d 4.69b 69.23e b f All composition dt were expressed in percent dry bsis. b Whet flour in bsic pncke recipe ws replced with respective percentges of penut flour. c Protein5 N d Determined by difference. e Men vlues followed by the sme letter re not significntly different ccording to p, To evlute the effect of freezing nd reheting on the qulity of pnckes, penut pnckes mde with both 12M nd 28L t 30% replcement level were reheted for three different time periods (20, 30 nd 50 sec) in 1100 W power commercil microwve oven (Amn Rdrnge, Model AMC2206BAW, Benton Hrbor, MI). The weight of penut pnckes before nd fter microwve reheting ws mesured using clibrted blnce nd the difference in the weights ws recorded s % moisture loss. Bulk density of the sme smples ws mesured using glss beds displcement method s described in Yemmireddy et l (2013) for two pnckes in ech btch. Using stinless steel borer, 1 cm 2 (rdius 3 height) cylindricl specimens of reheted pnckes were cut to conduct the TPA s described erlier. Sttisticl Anlysis. Sttisticl nlysis of the dt ws performed using ANOVA procedure t 5% level of significnce using SAS version 9.1 (SAS Inc., Cry, NC). Difference tests were conducted using the Lest Significnce Difference (LSD) test. Results nd Discussion Proximte composition of penut pnckes is shown in Tble 3. The men vlues of ft content rnged from 7.71% (12M t 20% replcement) to 16.31% (28L t 50% replcement). The control smple hs much lower ft content (5.77%) compred to penut pncke smples. As expected, ft content incresed with incresing penut flour concentrtion nd the initil ft level of prtilly deftted penut flour (12% or 28% ft). Protein content of the penut pnckes rnged from 9.38% (28M t 20% replcement) to 15.30% (12L t 50% replcement) while the control hs protein content of 5.58%. Sttisticl nlysis of protein dt reveled tht the penut pnckes mde from 12M showed higher protein vlues compred to 28L t sme level of replcement. These results lso show tht there is n inverse correltion between ft content nd protein content (i.e., with increse in ft content, the protein content decresed). Totl sh content of penut pnckes rnged from 3.97% (12M t 20% replcement) to 5.07% (28L t 50% replcement). The sh content incresed with incresing penut flour. Totl crbohydrte content of pnckes ws determined by difference nd the vlues rnged from 85.40% (for control) to 64.64% (for 28L t 50% replcement). Totl crbohydrtes decresed with incresing penut flour. Pnckes mde from 12M re found to hve higher crbohydrte content compred to 28L t the sme replcement level. Results from preliminry experiments indicted tht the flow behvior of pncke btter is importnt in the pncke preprtion. Btter viscosity ffects ppernce, texture nd sensory qulity of the finished products (Shih et l., 2006). To chieve similr consistency in btter viscosity nd uniformity in pncke qulity, for every 10% increse in penut flour concentrtion in the pncke mix, the mount of dded wter ws incresed by bout 8% (Tble 2). Men vlues of viscosity of the pncke btter re shown in Tble 4. Btter viscosity incresed with incresing 12M nd decresed with incresing 28L. Dvis et l. (2007) studied the rheologicl properties of queous penut flour dispersions nd found tht the dispersions with higher-ft flours were less viscous thn lower-ft flours on n equl weight bsis. Similr effect might be ttributed to the penut pncke btter used in this study. Men color vlues of penut pnckes re shown in Tble 4. The lightness (L*) vlues of

5 146 PEANUT SCIENCE Tble 4. Viscosity of penut pncke btter, color nd texture profile nlysis mesurements of penut pnckes. Texture profile nlysis Smples Replcement Viscosity Color vlues Hrdness Cohesiveness Springiness Chewiness % cp L Hue N mm N.mm Control c bc M b 48.1b 66.1bc 1.72bc 0.75b b b 45.7bc 64.9cd 1.79b 0.69cde 10.8b 13.2bc cde 63.1d 1.52bc 0.71c 10.5bc 11.3cd b 43.8cd 64.4cd 1.34bc 0.70cd 10.5bc 9.8de 28L d 44.0cd 68.3b 1.40bc 0.68de 10.3bcd 9.8de d 43.9cd 66.6bc 1.45bc 0.69cde 10.2cd 10.2de e 40.9de 64.3cd 1.34bc 0.68de 9.9d 9.0de e 39.6e 64.1cd 1.23c 0.67e 10.2cd 8.3e Men vlues followed by the sme letter re not significntly different ccording to p, penut pnckes rnged from 39.6 to Control smple (L*551.6) ws lighter thn smples contining penut flour but not significntly different from 12M smple t 20% replcement (L*548.1). It cn be inferred tht the ft content, degree of rosting nd concentrtion of penut flour hs profound effect on lightness vlues. Similr results were observed (Cheewprmong et l., 2002; Hinds, 2003; Howrd nd Hung, 2010) in brekfst cerels, muffins nd pst noodles contining penut flours, respectively. However, by choosing medium rosted penut flour t 12% ft level nd light rosted penut flour t 28% ft level in the current study minimized the differences in lightness vlues. Hue ngle (h) represents the visul senstion of the color perceived by humn eye. The vlues of hue ngle for the penut pnckes rnged from 63.1 (for 12M t 40% replcement) to 68.3 (for 28L t 20% replcement) on the color wheel between 0 (red) nd 90 (yellow); representing golden yellow color for the penut pnckes. The hue vlue of control smple ws found to be 69.1 which is not significntly different thn pnckes mde from 28L t 20% replcement (h ). Similr results were observed by Holt et l. (1992) in muffins contining composite flour (66.6% whet flour nd 33.3% penut flour) nd those contining 100% whet flour. As the concentrtion of penut flour incresed, the hue vlues decresed nd pnckes becme more brown (Fig. 2). Sttisticl nlysis of the dt reveled tht the hue vlues for pnckes mde from 12M t different replcement levels; nd for 28L t 30, 40 nd 50% replcement levels were not significntly different from ech other (P$0.05). The subtle differences in perceived color mong the pnckes my be ttributed to the selection of different rosts t different ft levels of penut flour. Prmeters of TPA of penut pnckes re shown in Tble 4. Hrdness indictes the force required to compress food between the molrs nd is defined s force necessry to ttin given deformtion. Hrdness of penut pnckes ws mesured s pek force (N) required to compress the specimen to depth of 5 mm from its originl height. Hrdness vlues of penut pnckes rnged from 1.23 N (28L t 50% replcement) to 1.79 N (12M t 30% replcement) while control hd hrdness of 1.96 N. Hrdness of penut pnckes showed decresing trend with incresing penut flour nd pnckes mde with 28L tended to be lest hrd. Cohesiveness indictes the non-recoverble deformtions of the first nd second chews of product. Cohesiveness of the pnckes ws mesured s the rtio of work done during the second compression to the work done in the first compression. Cohesiveness vlues of penut pnckes rnged from 0.67 (28L t 50% replcement) to 0.75 (12M t 20% replcement). Sttisticl nlysis reveled tht cohesiveness of control (0.79) is higher nd significntly different thn the penut pnckes. Springiness indictes how well Fig. 2. Color comprison of penut pnckes with 12% ft medium rost (12M) or 28% ft light rost (28L) s compred to the control.

6 PEANUT PANCAKE 147 Tble 5. Effect of microwve reheting time on the moisture loss, bulk density nd texture profile nlysis of the frozen penut pnckes. Texture profile nlysis Smples Reheting time Moisture loss Bulk density Hrdness Cohesiveness Springiness Chewiness sec % gm/ml N mm N. mm Commercil b 0.62b 2.23c 0.83b 10.7f 18.1bc 12M c 2.03c 0.84b 12.1cde 20.2bc c 0.55c 2.04bc 0.83b 13.1b 21.1b b 0.63b b 11.4ef b 0.80c 11.5def L c 1.52c 0.86b 13.0bc 16.8bc c 0.54c 0.96c 0.82b c b 0.62b 1.75c 0.81c 12.3bcde 17.3bc bc 0.83bc 12.4bcd 26.2 Men vlues followed by the sme letter re not significntly different ccording to p, product physiclly springs bck fter it hs been deformed during the first bite. Springiness of pnckes ws mesured s the detected height of the product on the second compression nd the vlues showed no significnt effect due to percentge of penut flour replcement. However, pnckes mde from 12M hd higher springiness vlues thn pnckes mde from 28L. Chewiness is the net energy required to chew the solid food to the point required for swllowing it. Chewiness (hrdness 3 cohesiveness 3 springiness) of the control smple ws not significntly different from the penut pncke with 12L t 20% replcement. The current study showed the fesibility of incorporting 20 to 50% penut flour in regulr whet pnckes. At these levels, penut flour substntilly incresed the protein content while seemingly minimizing differences in texture, s determined by TPA, when compring to trditionl whet pnckes. The effect of microwve reheting time on texture of the frozen pnckes is shown in Tble 5. TPA of penut pnckes ws conducted fter 0, 20, 30 nd 50 sec microwve reheting times, while the TPA of commercil frozen pncke (control) ws conducted only t 30 sec microwve reheting time s per the instructions on the lbel. Hrdness of pnckes rnged from 0.96 to 4.22 N nd incresed with incresing microwve reheting time of penut pnckes. Sttisticl nlysis of the dt indictes tht the hrdness of control smple t 30 sec microwve reheting time is not significntly different from penut pnckes, except hrdness of 12M t 30 nd 50 sec microwve reheting time. Similrly, cohesiveness of reheted penut pnckes did not show significnt difference from the control. Springiness of both penut pncke vrieties (12M nd 28L) not showed significnt difference with microwve reheting time. However, the springiness is found to be higher t 20 sec microwve reheting time of penut pnckes. Chewiness of penut pnckes rnged from 11.1 (for 28L t 20 sec reheting time) to 34.5 N. mm (for 12M t 30 sec reheting time). Chewiness incresed with incresing microwve reheting time. The effect of microwve reheting time on moisture loss nd bulk density of frozen pnckes is shown in Tble 5. Moisture loss of penut pnckes rnged from 3.48 (for 28L t 20 sec reheting time) to 26.5% (for 28L t 50 sec reheting time). The percent moisture loss of penut pnckes incresed with incresing microwve reheting time. This indictes microwve reheting time hs significnt impct on moisture loss of pnckes, nd penut pnckes showed higher moisture loss compred to the control t sme microwve reheting time. The bulk density of pnckes rnged from 0.50 (28L t 0 sec reheting) to 0.79 g/ml (28L t 50 sec reheting) nd incresed with incresing microwve reheting time. The bulk density of the penut pnckes mde from either 12M or 28L nd the control were not significntly different (P$0.05) from ech other t the sme microwve reheting times. The selection of two different rosts for two different dftted flours might hve blnced the effect on bulk densities in the current study. Overll, microwve reheting time of 20 sec hd similr moisture loss, bulk density nd texturl chrcteristics s the control, suggesting these penut pnckes hve the potentil to be frozen brekfst item. Conclusions A working formul for penut pncke ws estblished, strting with bsic pncke recipe.

7 148 PEANUT SCIENCE Penut pnckes cn be mde successfully by replcing 20 to 50% of whet flour. A minimum of 20% of penut flour is needed to increse the protein content compred to trditionl whet bsed pnckes. The initil ft nd protein content of the penut flours significntly impcted the composition of the penut pnckes including ft nd protein levels. As per current test conditions, minimum of 20 s microwve reheting time is required for frozen pnckes to chieve similr texture profile nlysis chrcteristics s the control. The developed penut pncke instnt mix hs shown promise s functionl brekfst food item to replce regulr whet pnckes. Acknowledgements This reserch ws supported by grnt from the Ntionl Penut Bord through the Southestern Penut Reserch Inititive nd by Stte nd Htch funds llocted to the University of Georgi Agriculturl Experiment Sttion, Griffin Cmpus. The uthors would like to thnk Mr. Bruce A. Kotz for providing the penut flour, Mr. Glenn Frrell for the technicl help, nd Jerry Dvis for sttisticl ssistnce. Literture Cited AACC (Americn Assocition of Cerel Chemists) Approved Methods of the AACC. (10 th ed.). Method St. Pul, MN, USA. AACC (Americn Assocition of Cerel Chemists) Approved Methods of the AACC. (10 th ed.). Method St. Pul, MN, USA. AOAC (Assocition of Officil Anlyticl Chemists) Officil methods of nlysis of AOAC interntionl. (16 th ed.). Method Arlington, VA, USA. AOAC (Assocition of Officil Anlyticl Chemists) Officil methods of nlysis of AOAC interntionl. (16 th ed.). Method Arlington, VA, USA. Cheewprmong, P., Riz, M.N., Rooney, L.W., nd Luss, E.W Use of prtilly deftted penut flour in brekfst cerel flkes. Cerel Chemistry 79: Dvis, J.P., Ghrst, G., nd Snders, T.H Some rheologicl properties of queous penut flour dispersions. Journl of Texture Studies 38: FAO (Food nd Agriculturl Orgniztion) Amino cid content of foods & biologicl dt on proteins. Rome, UN. Ferreyr, P.J.C., Kuskoski, E.M., Luiz, M.T.B., Arellno, D.B., nd Fett, R Emulsifying nd foming properties of penut (Archis hypoge Lineu) flour. Grss Y Aceites 58: Ghlwt, P. nd Sehgl S Antinutritionl content of developed wening foods s ffected by domestic processing. Food Chemistry 47(4): Hinds, M.J Physicl properties of muffins contining penut flour nd penut butter. Penut Science 30: Holt, S.D., McWtters, K.H., nd Resurreccion, A.V.A Vlidtion of predicted bking performnce of muffins contining mixtures of whet, cowpe, penut, sorghum, nd cssv flours. Journl of Food Science 57: Howrd, B.M. nd Hung, Y.-C Formultion of pst noodles mde with penut flour. Penut Science 37: Howrd, B.M., Hung, Y.-C., nd McWtters, K.H Anlysis of ingredient functionlity nd formultion optimiztion of pst supplemented with penut flour. Journl of Food Science 76(1):E40-E47. Ory, R.L. nd Conkerton, E.J Supplementtion of bkery items with high protein penut flour, Journl of the Americn Oil Chemists Society 60(5): Plhr, M.A., Hung, Y.C., nd McWtters, K.H Improving the nutritionl qulity nd mintining consumption qulity of kr using curdln nd composite flour. Interntionl Journl of Food Science nd Technology 41: Prinywiwtkul, W., Beucht, L.R., Phillips, R.D., nd Resurreccion, A.V.A Modeling the effects of penut flour, feed moisturecontent, nd extrusion temperture on physicl-properties of n extruded snck product. Interntionl Journl of Food Science nd Technology 30: SAS/STAT User s Guide. SAS Institute, Inc., Cry, NC. Seguchi, M Contribution of whet-strch grnule hydrophobicity to pncke texture. Cerel Foods World 38: Seguchi, M., Hyshi, M., Kneng, K., Ishihr, C., nd Noguchi, S Springiness of pncke nd its reltion to binding of prime strch to tilings in stored whet flour. Cerel Chemistry 75: Shih, F.F., Truong, V.D., nd Digle, K.W Physicochemicl properties of gluten-free pnckes from rice nd sweet potto flours. Journl of Food Qulity 29: Win, M.M., Abdul-Hmid, A., Bhrin, B.S., Anwr, F., nd Sri, N Effects of rosting on phenolics composition nd ntioxidnt ctivity of penut (Archis hypoge L.) kernel flour. Europen Food Reserch nd Technology 233: Yemmireddy, V.K., Chinnn, M.S., Kerr, W.L., nd Hung, Y. -C Effect of drying method on drying time nd physico-chemicl properties of dried rbbiteye blueberries. LWT - Food Science nd Technology 50: