Sweeteners and Sugar Alternatives in Food Technology

Transcription

1 Sweeteners and Sugar Alternatives in Food Technology

2 Sweeteners and Sugar Alternatives in Food Technology Second Edition Edited by Dr Kay O Donnell Weybridge, UK Dr Malcolm W. Kearsley Reading, UK A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

3 This edition first published 2012 C 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. First edition C Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Wiley-Blackwell is an imprint of John Wiley & Sons, formed by the merger of Wiley s global Scientific, Technical and Medical business with Blackwell Publishing. Registered office: Editorial offices: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa , USA For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at The right of the authors to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Sweeteners and sugar alternatives in food technology / edited by Kay O Donnell, Malcolm Kearsley. 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Sweeteners. 2. Sugar substitutes. 3. Sugars in human nutrition. I. O Donnell, Kay. II. Kearsley, M. W. TP421.S dc A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Cover images: Background: C Stockphoto.com/Lighthaunter; Cereal: C istockphoto.com/lauripatterson; Stevia leaf: C istockphoto.com/dirkr; Sweets: C istockphoto.com/juanmonino; Stevia Powder: C istockphoto.com/olm26250 Cover design by Steve Thompson Set in 10/12 pt Times by Aptara R Inc., New Delhi, India

4 Contents Preface Contributors xvii xix PART ONE: NUTRITION AND HEALTH CONSIDERATIONS 1 1 Glycaemic Responses and Toleration 3 Geoffrey Livesey 1.1 Introduction Glycaemic response in ancient times Glycaemic response approaching the millennium The glycaemic response now and in future nutrition Glycaemic response and adverse outcomes: both physiological and in response to advice Measurement and expression of the glycaemic response The acute glycaemic response to sugars and alternatives Long-term glycaemic control with sweeteners and bulking agents Are low glycaemic carbohydrates of benefit in healthy persons? Gastrointestinal tolerance in relation to the glycaemic response Conclusion 19 References 20 2 Dental Health 27 Anne Maguire 2.1 Introduction Dental caries The problem Aetiology Control and prevention Determining cariogenicity Reduced-calorie bulk sweeteners Erythritol Isomalt Lactitol Maltitol Sorbitol 36

5 vi Contents Mannitol D-tagatose Xylitol Key points from the dental evidence for reduced-calorie sweeteners and their use High-potency (high-intensity) sweeteners Acesulfame K Aspartame and Neotame Cyclamate and saccharin Sucralose Other sweeteners Key points from the dental evidence for high-potency (high-intensity) sweeteners and their use Bulking agents Polydextrose Fructose polymers Key points from the dental evidence for bulking agents Summary 49 References 49 3 Digestive Health 63 Henna Röytiö, Kirsti Tiihonen and Arthur C. Ouwehand 3.1 Introduction; prebiotics, sweeteners and gut health Intestinal microbiota Gut health Prebiotics versus fibre Endogenous prebiotics Milk oligosaccharides Secreted substrates in the gut Prebiotics Current prebiotics Health benefits Synbiotics Safety considerations Conclusion 71 Acknowledgements 72 References 72 4 Calorie Control and Weight Management 77 Michele Sadler and Julian D. Stowell 4.1 Introduction Caloric contribution of sugars in the diet Calorie control and its importance in weight management Calorie reduction in foods Appetite and satiety research 80

6 Contents vii 4.6 Sweeteners and satiety, energy intakes and body weight Satiety and energy intake Body weight management Relevance of energy density and glycaemic response Energy density Glycaemic response Legislation relevant to reduced calorie foods Conclusions 87 Acknowledgement 87 References 88 PART TWO: HIGH-POTENCY SWEETENERS 91 5 Acesulfame K 93 Christian Klug and Gert-Wolfhard von Rymon Lipinski 5.1 Introduction and history Organoleptic properties Acesulfame K as the single sweetener Blends of acesulfame K with other sweetening agents Compatibility with flavours Physical and chemical properties Appearance Solubility Stability Physiological properties Applications Beverages Dairy products and edible ices Bakery products and cereals Sweets and chewing gum Jams, marmalades, preserves and canned fruit Delicatessen products Table-top sweeteners Pharmaceuticals Cosmetics Tobacco products Technical applications Safety and analytical methods Pharmacology Toxicology Safety assessments and acceptable daily intake Analytical methods Regulatory status Approvals Purity criteria 112 References 112

7 viii Contents 6 Aspartame, Neotame and Advantame 117 Kay O Donnell 6.1 Aspartame Introduction Synthesis Sensory properties Physicochemical properties Physiological properties Applications Analysis Safety Regulatory status Neotame Neotame structure and synthesis Sensory properties Physiochemical properties Physiological properties Applications Safety Regulatory Advantame Synthesis Sensory properties Stability Solubility Safety Regulatory 134 References Saccharin and Cyclamate 137 Grant E. DuBois 7.1 Introduction Current understanding of sweetness Saccharin History, manufacture and chemical composition Organoleptic properties Physical and chemical properties Physiological properties Applications Safety Regulatory status Cyclamate History, manufacture and chemical composition Organoleptic properties Physical and chemical properties Physiological properties 158

8 Contents ix Applications Safety Regulatory status 160 References Sucralose 167 Samuel V. Molinary and Mary E. Quinlan 8.1 Introduction History of development Production Organoleptic properties Physico-chemical properties Physiological properties Applications Beverages Dairy products Confectionery Baked products Pharmaceuticals Analytical methods Safety Regulatory status 181 References Natural High-Potency Sweeteners 185 Michael G. Lindley 9.1 Introduction The sweeteners Thaumatin Steviol glycosides Lo han guo (mogroside) Brazzein Monatin Conclusions 203 References 204 PART THREE: REDUCED-CALORIE BULK SWEETENERS Erythritol 215 Peter de Cock 10.1 Introduction History General characteristics Manufacturing process 217

9 x Contents 10.2 Organoleptic properties Sweetness intensity Sweetness profile Cooling effect Synergy with other sweeteners Physical and chemical properties Stability Solubility Melting point and other thermal characteristics Viscosity Hygroscopicity Boiling point elevation and freezing point depression Water activity at various concentrations versus sucrose Physiological properties and health benefits Digestion of carbohydrates Metabolic fate of erythritol Caloric value Digestive tolerance Glycaemic and insulinaemic response Dental health Anti-oxidant properties Applications Table-top sweeteners Beverages Chewing gum Chocolate Candies Fondant Lozenges Bakery (pastry) products Safety and specifications Regulatory status Conclusions 240 References Isomalt 243 Anke Sentko and Ingrid Willibald-Ettle 11.1 Introduction Organoleptic properties Sweetening potency versus sucrose Sweetening profile versus sucrose Synergy and/or compatibility with other sweeteners Physical and chemical properties Stability Solubility Viscosity Heat of solution 247

10 Contents xi Boiling point elevation Melting range Hygroscopicity moisture uptake at various relative humidities Water activity at various concentrations versus sucrose Physiological properties Applications Hard candies Chocolates Low boilings Chewing gum Pan coating with ISOMALT GS Compressed tablets Baked goods Fruit spreads Breakfast cereals, cereal bars and muesli Overview further applications Safety Regulatory status: worldwide Conclusions 271 References Lactitol 275 Christos Zacharis 12.1 History Organoleptic properties Physical and chemical properties Stability Solubility Viscosity Heat of solution Boiling point elevation Hygroscopicity Water activity Physiological properties Metabolism Health benefits Lactitol as a prebiotic Lactitol to treat hepatic encephalopathy Lactitol and diabetes Tooth-protective properties Applications Chocolate Baked goods Chewing gum and confectionery Ice cream and frozen desserts Preserves Tablets 290

11 xii Contents 12.7 Regulatory status Conclusions 291 References Maltitol Powder 295 Malcolm W. Kearsley and Ronald C. Deis 13.1 Introduction Production Alternative methods of maltitol manufacture Structure Physical and chemical properties Chemical reactivity Compressibility Cooling effect (heat of solution) Humectancy and hygroscopicity Molecular weight Solubility Sweetness Physiological properties Calorific value Dental aspects Diabetic suitability Glycaemic index Laxative effects Applications in foods The main food applications of maltitol Labelling claims Legal status Conclusions 306 References Maltitol Syrups 309 Michel Flambeau, Frédérique Respondek and Anne Wagner 14.1 Introduction Production Maltitol syrups Polyglycitols Hydrogenation Structure Physico-chemical characteristics Chemical reactivity Cooling effect (heat of solution) Humectancy Hygroscopicity Molecular weight Solubility Viscosity 316

12 Contents xiii 14.6 Physiological properties Calorific value Dental aspects Glycaemic index Toleration Sweetness Conclusions Applications in foods Hard candy Aerated confectionery Caramels Sugar-free panning Chewing gum Other sugar-free or reduced-sugar confectionery Dairy applications Bakery applications Ketchup Legal status Safety Conclusions 329 References Sorbitol and Mannitol 331 Ronald C. Deis and Malcolm W. Kearsley 15.1 Introduction Production Sorbitol powder Sorbitol syrups Mannitol Hydrogenation Storage Structure Safety Physico-chemical characteristics Chemical reactivity Compressibility Cooling effect Humectancy Hygroscopicity Molecular weight Solubility Viscosity Physiological properties Calorific value Dental aspects Diabetic suitability Glycaemic response 340

13 xiv Contents Tolerance Sweetness Applications in foods Gum Hard candy Tabletting Surimi Cooked sausages Baked goods Panning Over-the-counter products Chocolate Non-food applications Sorbitol Mannitol Legal status Conclusions 346 References Xylitol 347 Christos Zacharis 16.1 Description Organoleptic properties Sweetness Sweetness synergy Physical and chemical properties Heat of solution Stability Solubility Viscosity Boiling point elevation Water activity Hygroscopicity Physiological properties Metabolism Suitability for diabetics Tolerance Caloric value Health benefits Other health benefits associated with xylitol Applications Confectionery Chewing gum Hard coating applications Chocolate Dairy products and frozen desserts 368

14 Contents xv Baked goods Non-food applications Safety Regulatory status 370 References 371 PART FOUR: OTHER SWEETENERS New Developments in Sweeteners 385 Guy Servant and Gwen Rosenberg 17.1 Sweet taste modulators Sweet modulator targets Industry need for reduced-calorie offerings Sweet taste receptors Sweet taste modulator mechanism of action Identification and evaluation of sweet taste modulators Optimisation of sweet taste modulators Commercially viable sweet taste modulators Regulatory approval of sweet taste modulators Commercialisation of sweet taste modulators Future sweet taste modulators and new sweeteners Modulators for other taste modalities Savoury flavour ingredients Bitter blockers Cooling flavours Salt taste modulators Conclusions 394 References Isomaltulose 397 Anke Sentko and Ingrid Willibald-Ettle 18.1 Introduction Organoleptical properties Physical and chemical properties Physical properties Chemical properties Microbiological properties Physiological properties Dental health Effect on blood glucose and insulin Effect on fat oxidation Gastrointestinal tolerance Toxicological evaluations Applications Beverage applications Confectionery applications Other applications 411

15 xvi Contents 18.8 Regulatory status Conclusions 413 References Trehalose 417 Takanobu Higashiyama and Alan B. Richards 19.1 Introduction Trehalose in nature Production Metabolism, safety and tolerance Regulatory status Properties Application in food Technical properties Stabilisation of carbohydrates Stabilisation of proteins Stabilisation of flavours and aromas Physiological properties Conclusions 428 References 429 PART FIVE: BULKING AGENTS MULTI-FUNCTIONAL INGREDIENTS Bulking Agents Multi-Functional Ingredients 435 Michael Auerbach and Anne-Karine Dedman 20.1 Introduction Gluco-polysaccharides Polydextrose Resistant starches and resistant maltodextrins Fibersol Nutriose FB Fructo-oligosaccharides Inulin and low-molecular-weight FOS 454 References 462 Index 471

16 Preface Indulgence in sweet foods and drinks is a human weakness and both are consumed far beyond their value in relieving hunger and thirst. Sweetness is most commonly associated with sucrose, and this is the most widely consumed sweetener in the world although it has been criticised for many years by some with regard to its contribution to obesity, dental caries and other diseases. While glucose (and fructose) syrups are widely used to replace sucrose in foods, this is largely a cost-saving exercise and does not address many of the problems associated with sugar consumption. Over the last 30 years, a wide range of sugar replacers have been developed and marketed. These include the bulk sweeteners the polyols, which replace sucrose and glucose on a weight for weight basis, and the high-potency sweeteners where a kilogram of sugar in a food product might be replaced by a few grams of a very sweet material. In the case of high-potency sweeteners, this has led to the development of a parallel industry to provide ingredients, which can be used in conjunction with the sweetener to retain the bulk of the traditional product. More recently, sugars with many of the properties of bulk sweeteners and sweet taste enhancers that increase the potency of sweet compounds have been new additions to the market. Replacement of sugars in foods has given us a new perspective on healthy foods where claims such as sugar-free, no-added-sugar and reduced calorie/sugar are being exploited by food manufacturers. The use of ingredients to improve the nutritional status of a food product is one of the major driving forces for new product development, and sugar replacement is still seen as an area for development. This book provides a unique reference for food scientists and technologists with information on sugar replacement options to produce foods that not only taste and perform as well as sugar-based products but also offer consumer benefits including calorie reduction, dental health benefits, digestive health benefits and improvements in long-term disease risk through strategies such as dietary glycaemic control. This second edition of Sweeteners and Sugar Alternatives follows the same basic layout as in the successful first edition with many of the same authors contributing to their relevant areas of expertise. New chapters on isomaltulose, trehalose and developments in sweeteners have been included to reflect changes in the use and understanding of sweeteners and sweet taste. For ease of reference, the book is set out as follows: Part One: Nutrition and Health Considerations. This part considers the physiological effects and subsequent health benefits of sweeteners and sugar alternatives. Subjects include improved glycaemic control, dental health, digestive health and the role of these products in calorie control and weight management. Part Two: High-Potency Sweeteners. This part describes the properties and applications of the most commonly used sweeteners. These products are unique in that they provide high sweetness without bulk and without any major impact on calories.

17 xviii Preface Part Three: Reduced-Calorie Bulk Sweeteners. This part describes both the properties and applications of polyols and includes reference to polyglycitols, hydrogenated glucose syrups containing less than 50% maltitol. Bulk sweeteners provide the physical characteristics of sugar and glucose but with reduced calories and other physiological benefits. Part Four: Other Sweeteners. This part describes new developments in sweeteners and specifically how they elicit a sweet taste when consumed. Also included are chapters on isomaltulose and trehalose that, although classed as sugars, exhibit many of the properties of the bulk sweeteners. Part Five: Bulking Agents Multi-Functional Ingredients. This chapter focuses on the oligoand polysaccharide materials that are most applicable as sugar alternatives and that have sugar-like properties in food applications and, often, prebiotic properties. They allow greater flexibility when replacing sugar in formulations and complement the use of all types of sweeteners in foods. The summary tables at the end of each chapter and the extensive references are meant to inspire those who wish to learn more. A sincere thanks to all the contributors to the book. Kay O Donnell and Malcolm W. Kearsley

18 Contributors Michael Auerbach Regulatory Advisor Active Nutrition, DuPont Nutrition & Health NY, USA PeterdeCock Cargill Vilvoorde, Belgium Anne-Karine Dedman Technical Manager Active Nutrition, DuPont Nutrition & Health Paris, France Ronald C. Deis Corn Products International Newark, DE, USA Grant E. DuBois Sweetness Technologies, LLC Roswell, GA, USA Michel Flambeau Application and Technical Support Director Tereos Syral Marckolsheim, France Takanobu Higashiyama Hayashibara International Inc. Broomfield, CO, USA Malcolm W. Kearsley Reading, UK Christian Klug Head of Quality Management and Regulatory Affairs Nutrinova Nutrition Specialities and Food Ingredients GmbH Sulzbach, Germany Michael G. Lindley Lindley Consulting Crowthorne, UK Geoffrey Livesey Independent Nutrition Logic Ltd Wymondham, UK Anne Maguire Centre for Oral Health Research School of Dental Sciences Newcastle University, UK Samuel V. Molinary Consultant Scientific & Regulatory Affairs Beaufort, SC, USA Kay O Donnell Weybridge UK Arthur C. Ouwehand Active Nutrition, DuPont Nutrition & Health Kantvik, Finland Mary E. Quinlan Tate & Lyle London, UK Frédérique Respondek Scientific and Regulatory Affairs Manager Tereos Syral Marckolsheim, France Alan B. Richards Hayashibara International Inc. Broomfield, CO, USA Gwen Rosenberg Senomyx Inc San Diego, CA, USA

19 xx Contributors Henna Röytiö Active Nutrition, DuPont Nutrition & Health Kantvik, Finland Michele Sadler Consultant Nutritionist MJSR Associates Kent, UK Anke Sentko BENEO GmbH Mannheim, Germany Guy Servant Senomyx Inc. San Diego, CA, USA Julian D. Stowell Vice President, Scientific Affairs Active Nutrition, DuPont Nutrition & Health Reigate, UK Kirsti Tiihonen Active Nutrition, DuPont Nutrition & Health Kantvik, Finland Gert-Wolfhard von Rymon Lipinski MK Food Management Consulting GmbH Bad Vilbel, Germany Anne Wagner Vice President Innovation and Quality Tereos Syral Marckolsheim, France Ingrid Willibald-Ettle BENEO GmbH Mannheim, Germany Christos Zacharis Technical Manager Functional Sweeteners Active Nutrition, DuPont Nutrition & Health Surrey, UK

20 Part One Nutrition and Health Considerations