14.2 CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON BUYER'S PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

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1 326 modesty, humility, and self-improvement. In North America, self-criticism and focus on negative characteristics of self are perceived as the lack of ability to be self-sufficient, independent and make one s own way in the world (DeMooij, 2004). In the collectivistic cultures such as the Philippines, Korea, or Thailand, the development of the self is achieved through the group, social acceptance, and social image. For Americans, social acceptance and self-image achieved through the group is not so much important. Americans are not concerned so much about opinions of others; instead they rely more on the self, their own individual value system, and their personal opinions CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON BUYER'S PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS Motivation and needs The degree of importance of motives and needs is influenced by national culture. For example, it was found that the Asian and Caucasian visitors have different motivations for attending a Cultural Expo in Korea (Lee, 2000). British and German tourists have different motivations for and satisfaction levels with visits to Mallorca and Turkey (Kozak, 2001, 2002). Those from masculine cultures are usually more motivated by material success, position and social status, exotic vacations, and luxury resorts. Those from individualistic cultures are motivated by hedonism, convenience, the pursuit of pleasure, thrill, enjoyment, stimulation, having fun, and self-satisfaction. Those from collectivistic cultures are motivated by socializing and group activities, in particular, nature-based activities. Those from high-power-distance cultures are motivated by social status and image. Those from feminine cultures are motivated by family vacation and time spent with friends. Also, culture itself plays a vital role in motivating international tourists to undertake travel (Hanquin & Lam, 1999; Kim & Chalip, 2004; McGehee, Loker-Murphy, & Uysal, 1996; Oh, Uysal, & Weaver, 1995). For example, culture was identified as an important destination attribute and reason for traveling (McKercher & ducross, 2003) and an important motive for the Australian leisure travel market to the United States (McGehee, Loker-Murphy, & Uysal, 1996). A large proportion of Australian tourists seek to increase knowledge by experiencing a different culture (Oh, Uysal, & Weaver, 1995) Perception and image Different cultural groups perceive differently (Mayo & Jarvis, 1981). National culture influences local residents perceptions of international tourists (Pizam & Sussmann, 1995; Richardson & Crompton, 1988). For example, the Japanese are perceived as traveling in groups, bowing to everybody, spending heavily, constantly photographying (Cho, 1991), taking short holidays to avoid separation from the family, and expecting facilities and services for larger groups (Ritter, 1987). Koreans are perceived as loyal

2 14.2 Cultural influences on buyer's psychological characteristics 327 to their cultural identity, unwilling to accept other than Korean ways of living, being proud of their Confucian philosophy, traveling in groups, spending freely (Cho, 1991), and traveling in a loose and unplanned manner relative to the Japanese and Americans, who travel in a rigid and planned manner (Pizam & Jeong, 1996). National culture influences tourists perceptions of local residents (Hoffman & Low, 1981). The perception of service personnel is a primary way in which visitors form perceptions and make judgments about their destinations and residents (Wei, Crompton, & Reid, 1989). However, perceptions of service quality vary across cultures. For example, Asian-Pacific and European-American visitors to Hong Kong perceive service quality differently (Luk, Leon, Leong, & Li, 1993). European, Asian and English Heritage cultural groups significantly differ in their perceptions of service quality obtained in the Hong Kong hotel industry (Armstrong, Mok, Go, & Chan, 1997). National culture leads to different perceptions of what constitutes proper guest treatment. For example, according to the Chinese, hosts should escort their guests everywhere and provide them with a very tight itinerary; this, they believe, is courteous and high-quality service (Sheldon & Fox, 1988). Japanese hosts take care of the affairs of their guests in advance and even fulfill their needs beyond expectations (Befu, 1971). The Japanese believe that the hosts know best what the guests needs are. However, Western tourists perceive such hospitality as uncomfortable, intrusive, or lacking trust. National culture also affects the tour guides perceptions of similarities and differences between international tourists. For example, Pizam and Sussmann (1995) proposed that British tour guides perceive Japanese, French, Italian, and American tourists as differing in 18 out of 20 behavioral characteristics related to social interactions, activity preferences, bargaining, knowledge of destination, and commercial transactions. Japanese tourists are the most distinctive, whereas Italian tourists are the most like the other nationalities. The Italians and French are very similar to each other in their behavior, followed by the Americans and Italians. French and American tourists are the least similar. Pizam and Jeong (1996) noted that Korean tour guides perceive Americans as the most distinct among Japanese, American, and Korean tourists. Koreans and Japanese are the most similar to each other, followed by Japanese Americans. American and Japanese tourists know more than Koreans about foreign destinations. Koreans are more interested in artifacts than people, while Americans and Japanese are more interested in people than in artifacts. According to Pizam and Jeong (1996), Americans are perceived as the most interested in people, novelty, desire to be near nature and to visit national parks and national monuments. They plan their trips rigidly and meticulously and prefer long trips. They are the most sociable, adventuresome, and active of the three nationalities (probably due to high risk-taking). In contrast, both Koreans and Japanese like to travel to foreign destinations that are relatively close to home, but Koreans prefer longer trips than the Japanese. Koreans and Japanese are also the least active and reserved in new social situations (probably due to their collectivistic and high-uncertainty-avoidance characteristics). Koreans and Japanese also buy more souvenirs than Americans to

3 328 commemorate their visit to a particular destination and fulfill social obligations by letting the loved ones left at home know they have not been forgotten. In addition, Japanese and Koreans travel in groups and bargain more than Americans. Koreans are the least interested in people and the least adventurous in food. They are skeptical and distrustful. They conduct their trips in a loose and unplanned manner. Japanese are the most adventurous in food preferences, and they plan their trips rigidly and meticulously, but choose short trips. Further, national culture influences selective perception. Selective perception refers to observation of the selected reality related to own needs, feelings, and beliefs only. People perceive what they want to perceive. They usually perceive what is similar to their cultures and according to their cultural standards. In individualistic cultures people perceive that everybody has similar values, notice similar cues, respond to similar stimuli, and interpret messages similarly. In collectivistic cultures, on the other hand, people s perceptions depend on the social context. Although members of the individualistic and collectivistic cultures can see the same people and objects, their interpretation of others and objects can be different because of the situation in which the interpretation occurs. Thus, perceptions are very subjective. Consequently, misunderstanding between those from individualistic and those from collectivistic cultures may occur. Image is how others perceive and evaluate a person or an object (e.g., how others perceive a destination). Each cultural group develops its own unique images and has its own specific definition of a positive image. In collectivistic Asian cultures, images of people, groups, objects, or genders portrayed in the media are different than in individualistic Western cultures. For example, in Korea, positive self-image and identity are associated with belonging to high-status families. In Western cultures, selfimage and others-identity is assessed based on personality and individual characteristics, such as age or occupation, and mostly material possessions. In many Western societies people buy self-image and social status. People buy tangible goods, such as cars, luxury apartments, jewelry, or luxury travel to develop a specific image and show they are from a higher social class. However, in France, numerous Asian cultures, and India, people believe they cannot buy social status or self-image; self-image and status are inherited. In these cultures, self-identity and image are assessed based on family and ancestors connections, and traditions. In addition, in Western cultures, importance is attached to the images of those who are successful. Much emphasis is put on external appearance, which it is believed to lead to success, happiness, and greater self-esteem. However, in Asian cultures, external appearance is of less importance; success and happiness are measured by the quality of social relations Learning and knowledge Learning varies by culture. In the individualistic Western cultures, the focus of learning is on logical and verbal skills. In Japan, learning is understood in terms of social competence, sociability, and ability to sympathize with others. In Africa, learning

4 14.2 Cultural influences on buyer's psychological characteristics 329 refers to achieving wisdom learning how to be trustworthy, social attentive, and responsible. The goal of learning in individualistic Western cultures is achievement, whereas in collectivistic cultures it is lifelong learning. In collectivistic cultures, knowledge and education are treated as among the most important investments in life, whereas in individualistic cultures people believe in different types of achievement, such as the ability to make money and buy material goods (DeMooij, 2004). Differences in learning are determined by different communication styles. In lowcontext-direct culture, learning is more abstract, separated from the social environment, and based on verbal skills. In high-context and indirect cultures, learning is more contextual, linked to the social environment, and based on non-verbal skills Attitudes People s attitudes are influenced by their cultural values. Attitudes have affective (feelings, emotions one experiences in response to an attitude object) and cognitive (attributes, functions, knowledge, learning) components. In Western cultures, attitudes help to gain knowledge, organize one s environment and provide frames of reference. Proper attitudes help people to achieve success, maximize rewards, enhance life enjoyment, and minimize the costs and hardships. In collectivistic cultures, where situational factors influence behavior, attitudes help to fulfill social-identity functions and obligations. People are more constrained by situations in their behavior, more under pressure to behave in a socially accepted manner and take into account attitudes of others. In individualistic cultures people are less constrained by social situations and are under less social pressure when developing attitudes. They take into account personal attitudes when making decisions (DeMooij, 2004). Attitudes vary across cultures. For example, there are important differences in attitudes toward food. For British and Japanese tourists, food is the most important part of a good vacation. For Australians it is ranked third, for Germans it is fifth, and for the French food is not at all important (Sheldon & Fox, 1989). Those from highuncertainty-avoidance cultures have more negative attitudes to pre-cooked food because they are more concerned about the purity and quality of food than those from low-uncertainty-avoidance cultures, who frequently purchase and consume fast food (DeMooij, 2004). Culture also influences eating habits. According to Robertson (1987), Americans eat oysters but not snails; French eat snails but not locusts; Zulus eat locusts but not fish; Jews eat fish but not pork; Hindus eat pork but not beef; Russians eat beef but not snakes; Chinese eat snakes but not people; The Jelas of New Guinea find people delicious! There are important differences among national cultures in attitudes toward success. Those from individualistic and high masculine culture, such as the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Austria, see their success in the possessions of material goods. Those from higher-uncertainty-avoidance cultures define their success and happiness more in terms of stability and social security (Austria, Germany, Japan) than material possessions. Those from feminine cultures emphasize more the quality of life (e.g., family gatherings, spending time with family) (DeMooij, 2004).

5 330 Culturally different people have different attitudes toward nationals of specific countries. Those who have positive or negative attitudes toward a particular country show favorable or unfavorable responses to its nationals. Often, Japan is admired for its technological development and the Japanese are seen as technologically competent people. Germany is regarded as a country of precision and rules, and Germans are perceived as detailed, reliable, and disciplined. France and Italy are known for good food and fashion. Thus, French and Italians are seen as good-food lovers and experts in style and design. America is known for offering opportunities, freedom, and independence. Consequently, Americans are perceived as freedom-loving people. Europe is known for its history and culture, and Europeans are known for their culture. According to Kang and Moscardo (2006), even attitudes toward environmental protection and conservation are culturally influenced. For example, Korean, Australian, and British tourists differ in attitudes toward responsible tourist behaviors. The Korean tourists are the most likely to spend time before they travel studying or collecting information about the environment of the destination, the lifestyle of the local residents, and environmentally friendly tours and places to stay. They also seek to participate in environmental education programs while traveling and agree to spend some money on environmental conservation and preservation Attribution Attribution refers to searching for causes of a certain phenomenon or behavior. Once one knows the causes of behavior one can predict and explain the behavior of other people. According to the Attribution Theory (Heider, 1958), every individual assigns certain attributions to explain behavior of self or others. These attributions are either internal or external. The internal attribution refers to findings causes within the individual, and external attribution refers to finding causes outside the individual. In individualistic culture people assign causes of their behavior to internal attributes, such as personality characteristics, and predict behavior of others based on their personality traits and past behavior. In collectivistic cultures people assign causes of their behavior to situational factors and predict behavior of others based on situational context CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON BUYER'S DECISION PROCESS The effect of national culture on the buying process and decision-making is demonstrated below Need recognition People s needs vary from one culture to another. People across cultures may do or buy the same things or travel to the same destination for different reasons. For example, the Mainland Chinese and the Americans travel to Hong Kong for different reasons. Mainland Chinese visit Hong Kong more for business/meeting purposes; American visitors