Psychology: Theory and Application

Transcription

1 Psychology: Theory and Application

2 Psychology: Theory and Application Philip Banyard Department of Applied Social Science, Nottingham Trent University, UK and Nicky Hayes Honorary Research Fellow, University of Huddersfield, UK SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, BV

3 First edition Philip Banyard and Nicky Hayes Originally published by Chapman & Hall in 1994 Designed and typeset in 10.5/13.5 pt ITC Garamond by G and M H Wadsley ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to the publishers at the London address printed on this page. The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that maybe made. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Catalog Card Number:

4 Contents Preface vii Self-efficacy 115 Acknowledgements ix Summary 120 Practice questions and activities {", ofb gation Introduction 1 nmuni and ex ion Experiments 3 Introduction 123 Experimental control and natural Non-verbal communication 126 experiments 7 Accent and dialect 134 Observation 15 Linguistic relativity 137 Case studies 21 Verbal deprivation 144 Questionnaires and surveys 25 Social scripts 150 Interviews 30 Attribution and explanation 158 Qualitative analysis 36 Discourse analysis 168 Psychometrics 40 Social representations 176 Meta -analysis 47 Summary 183 Some evaluative issues 51 Practice questions and activities Summary 55 Practice questions and activities nking telligef Introduction lltty a.111& Schemas 189 Introduction 58 Computer simulation and artificial Rogers' theory of personality 60 intelligence 198 Personal construct theory 66 Human reasoning 205 Trait theories of personality 69 Errors 210 Narrow-band approaches to personality 79 Sustained attention 218 Stressful life events 85 Decision-making 223 Arousal and stress 90 Risk 231 Coping 96 Creative thinking 239 Post-traumatic stress disorder 102 Intelligence 245 Learned helplessness 106 Summary 253 Locus of control 111 Practice questions and activities

5 VI CONTENTS Persuasion and attitude change 388 Introduction 257 Cognitive dissonance 399 Classical conditioning 260 Theories of prejudice 404 Operant conditioning 267 Social identity 409 Extensions of operant conditioning 274 Social and group norms 415 Social learning 276 Leadership style 424 Behaviour modification 280 Leadership and expectation 429 Cognitive maps 286 Transactional and transformational Imagery 291 leadership 432 Skill learning 297 Summary 435 Theories of memory 304 Practice questions and activities Constructive memory 311 Theories of forgetting 315 Summary 321 Introduction 438 Practice questions and activities Audiences 440 Conformity and compliance 444 Theories of aggression 456 Introduction 323 Crowds and deindividuation 462 Sensory modes 325 Territorial behaviour and personal space 468 Perceptual organization 335 Altruism 476 Recognizing people 341 Co-operation 481 Selective attention 348 Relationships 487 Perceptual set 355 Cultural psychology 497 Motivation 360 Summary 504 Social motivation 367 Practice questions and activities Summary 373 Practice questions and activities Afterword 507 Glossary 508 References 523 Introduction 375 Index 559 Attitudes 378

6 Preface In this book we have aimed to give you, the reader, an introduction to some of the basic theoretical concepts in psychology and to show how they have been applied in a range of professional areas. Psychology is a subject that most of us are interested in, and in this text we have tried to show what a versatile discipline psychology is and what an exciting subject it can be to study. The book is designed to show the connections between the various areas of applied psychology. For the most part, applied psychologists tend to produce specialist texts which are relevant to their own area of work. But much of the research in work psychology, for example, is relevant to the applied areas of sport or health or education, and research into sport psychology has messages for health psychology too. What we have tried to do in this text is to draw out the relationships between the various areas and show how the same basic concepts may manifest themselves in different applied fields. We hope that you will find the book stimulating and so will be encouraged to look further into the areas of applied psychology. We hope, too, that the book will act as a stimulus to additional research, whether that is in student projects or in research in the 'real world'. The text provides references and applications for each psychological concept that is introduced, and an interested reader should, with luck, find at least some of these provocative to further study. We have tried to use the widest possible range of sources and have included material from Combat magazine, advertising case histories, nursing journals, personnel journals and even some psychology journals! When we designed the book we wanted to get away from the psychology of the North American undergraduate. Much of the reported research in introductory texts is based on studies carried out on students and a cursory reading of introductory texts rarely makes us aware of the relevance of psychology in the real world. Student life is an unusual

7 VIII PREFACE period in a person's life which is characterized, for many, by having few responsibilities, and for some by having a large bar tab. A psychology that is relevant in applied settings needs to look outside a student group for its research participants. As we have found, there is wealth of material in psychology which allows us to explore psychology in its broader context. And, finally, one of our main aims in writing this book was that you should find it enjoyable, as well as useful. All right, so there's only so far you can enjoy a text book, but given the requirements of an academic book, we hope that it is pleasurable to read, and will encourage you to read and study more psychology. Applied psychology consultants Since neither of us could possibly claim to be expert in all the fields of applied psychology, we engaged the help of several expert psychologists to advise us in the choice of material. The consultants offered us a great deal of helpful advice and suggestions, and have contributed in no small part to the success of this project. We are deeply grateful to the following psychologists for their advice and contributions to the book's contents: Mike Herbert (International Medical College, Kuala Lumpur); Viv Shackleton (Aston Business SchooD; John Wilcock (Swansea College); Gill Jackson (The Nottingham Trent University); Ian Glendon (Aston University); and Gerry Finn Qordanhill College of Education). We would also like to thank Viv Shackleton and Pete Sanders for their help and encouragement in the preparation of the final manuscript. Philip Banyard Nicky Hayes

8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IX Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge Trevor Hylton (for sound advice), Dominic Recaldin (for good suggestions and only gentle nagging), William Merrin (for thinking), Lesley Phair (for forbearance) and Patrick Hylton (for advice, and also support during the distress of relegation). The following figures are reproduced with kind permission of their sources: Figure 1.1 The Kobal Collection Figure 1.7 Sheldon Cohen, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, USA Figure 2.3 (Top left) Hulton-Deutsch Collection, (top right) Popperfoto and (bottom) Impact Photos Figure 2.9 Translated and adapted by permission. Copyright The Institute for Personality and Ability Testing, Inc., International copyright in all countries under the Berne Union, Buenos Aires, Bilateral, and University Copyright Conventions. All property rights reserved by the Institute for Personality and Ability Testing, Inc., 1801 Woodfield Drive, Savoy, Illinois 61874, USA. All rights reserved. Published in the UK by ASE, a division of the NFER-NELSON Publishing Company Limited, Darville House, 2 Oxford Road East, Windsor, Berkshire SL4 1DF. NFER-NELSON is the sole publisher of 16PF in English language in the European Community, based upon an exclusive licensing agreement with the Institute for Personality and Ability Testing, Inc. Figure 2.11 Barnaby's Picture Library Figure 2.22 Impact Photos Figure 2.26 Press Association Figure 3.19 Mick Casey, Public Relations, Nestle Figure 3.22 The Guardian Figure 3.28 (Left) Giselle Freund, (right) Victoria and Albert Museum Picture Library Figure 3.29 Hewlett Packard Press Office, Wokingham Figure 4.1 Newsteam Figure 4.15 Popperfoto Figure 4.18 Civil Aviation Authority (press release photograph from New Scientist archive) Figure 4.23 Pete Addis Figure 5.1 Ralph Gibson, Novosti Figure 5.13 Professor Albert Bandura, Stanford University, Stanford, California Figure 5.17 London Regional Transport, LRT Registered User No. 94/E/619 Figure 5.22 Associated Press Figure 6.3 World of Leather Figure 6.8 (Left) Impact Photos, (middle) Format Partners, (right) Barnaby's Picture Library Figure 6.15 Press Association Figure 6.17 John Shepherd, University of Aberdeen Figure 6.19 American Association of Advertising Agencies Figure 6.22 Sarah Lamb Figure 6.24 (Top left) Scallywags, (top right) Andrew Manson, (bottom left) Tim Scott, (bottom right) Young 'uns Figure 7.2 ET Archive Figure 7.6 Peter Newark's Western Americana Figure 7.19 'What's On' Figure 7.22 Abbott Mead Vickers Figure 8.1 Colorsport Figure 8.3 Colorsport Figure 8.4 Stanley Milgram Figure 8.26 (Left) J. Allan Cash Photo Library, (middle) Impact Photos, (right) TRRL While every effort has been made to trace copyright holders and obtain permission, this has not been possible in all cases. Any omissions brought to our attention will be remedied in future editions. All cartoons by Julia Osorno.