Construction and Validation of Swimming Constraint Factors of Middle-Aged or Seniors in Swimming Pools of Public Universities

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1 Construction and Validation of Swimming Constraint Factors of Middle-Aged or Seniors in Swimming Pools of Public Universities Dr. Jenmin Huang, Department of Physical Education, National Pingtung University, Taiwan ABSTRACT This study aims to explore constraint factors of middle-aged or seniors who swim in swimming pools of public universities. First, by open-ended questionnaires, it collects constraint factors of middle-aged or seniors who swim in swimming pools of public universities. According to experts and scholars opinions and related literature review, upon data obtained, it constructs questionnaire on constraint factors of middle-aged or seniors who swim in swimming pools of public universities. By Confirmatory Factor Analysis, it examines reliability and validity of the scale. Research subjects are middle-aged or seniors in northern, central and southern Taiwan. By convenience sampling, it distributes 550 questionnaires and retrieves a total of 520 ones. Return rate is 94%; after deleting invalid questionnaires, this study acquires 500 valid questionnaires and valid questionnaire rate is 90%. According to research findings, scale of constraint factors of middle-aged or seniors who swim in swimming pools of public universities includes seven dimensions, personal capability, money, personal internal factor, environmental quality, information, time and accessibility and 24 items. The scale shows good reliability and validity and it can be applied to evaluate constraint factors of middle-aged or seniors who swim in swimming pools of public universities. Keywords: Swimming Pool of Public University, Middle-aged or Senior,Cconstraint Factor INTRODUCTION Research Background and Motives With change of global population structure, progress of high-tech medicine and upgrading of living standard, different countries successively become aged society. According to Article 2 of Service Act, people who are aged 45~65 are the middle-aged and seniors. In addition, by 2016 of Department of Statistics, Ministry of the Interior, in Taiwan, there were 7,291,742 person-time of middle-aged and seniors and they were 43% in total population. According to this figure, in population of Taiwan, 1/3 are middle-aged or seniors above 45 years old. However, because of the social phenomenon as aged society, people gradually pay attention to physical health. Leisure sports become common activities at daily leisure time (Chen, 2006). Regarding leisure sports, swimming is the exercise with low sports injuries, high amount of practice and mild activity (Barbosa, Keskinen, Fernandes, Colaco, Carmo, and Vilas-Boas, 2005). Yeh and Yeh (2010) argued that swimming is the healthy and leisure activity suitable for young and old people and it can develop strong figures. Besides, from 2001 to 2004, the government of Taiwan has established midterm project to enhance students swimming competence. From 2010 to 2021, it constructed the policy of let s go swimming. The purpose was to cultivate and upgrade people s swimming competence, participation and improve swimming pools in schools. Previous figures demonstrate the benefit of swimming and importance of swimming for the government of Taiwan. 68 The Journal of Human Resource and Adult Learning, Vol. 14, Num. 1, June, 2018 issue

2 According to past research on recreation, participation in leisure activities allows people to obtain new skills and abilities and enhance cardiorespiratory function (Law, Petrenchik, King, and Hurley, 2007). It lowers pressure and anxiety and strengthens emotional control (Harrison and Narayan, 2003). Thus, Sports Administration, Ministry of Education (2015) investigated people s sports habit and demonstrated that 17.0% of people did not practice sports in daily life, 33.4% of people had regular sports, 34.9% had occasional sports, 13.0% had low degree of sports and 1.7% rarely practiced sports. Based on 2016 survey on sports cities, among the sports items practiced by people in different counties and cities, swimming was only 7.9%. Based on previous figures, in the aged society, most of Taiwanese people might not have regular sports habit due to factors of internal and external environments. As to the main cause of lack of sports, Nyaupane and Andereck (2007) argued that place, time and cost were the main items of constraint of participation. Alexandris, Tsorbatzoudis, and Grouios (2002) stated that leisure constraints should include personal factor, psychological factor, time, lack of knowledge, facility, accessibility, partners and interest. Besides, according to the said research, constraints affected participation frequency of leisure activities. Past research demonstrated the necessity to explore leisure constraint (e.g., Jun and Kyle,2011; Hinch, Jackson, Hudson, and Walker, 2005; Hudson, Hinch, Walker, and Simpson, 2010). In research on definition of leisure constraint, upon perspective of recreation, it suggested that due to intervention of leisure constraints, individuals cannot practice certain leisure preference and it results in constraint of participation. Constraint means subjective perceived factor that individuals do not prefer or cannot engage in the participation. Besides, due to intervention of leisure constraint, individuals cannot continue the leisure preference. Therefore, leisure constraint is defined as subjective perceived factor of individuals internal resistance or refusal of participation. It is classified into three categories: individual internal constraint, interpersonal relationship constraint and structural constraint (Crawford and Godbey, 1987). Henderson (1991) argued that leisure constraint refers to all factors which influence individuals intention to participate in leisure activities, lower participation time and reduce satisfaction. In addition, past research mentioned various benefits of sports to middle-aged or seniors. They can not only improve physical fitness, but also reduce risk factors of aging related cardiovascular disease (Wang, 2004; Shang, 1999). The seniors with sports habit have significantly superior physical and mental states than middle-aged or seniors without regular sports habit. Besides, the middle-aged or seniors have better physical function and self-recognized health state (Resnick, Zimmerman, Orwig, Furstenberg, and Magaziner, 2000). Hence, this study suggests that it is necessary to explore constraint factors of middle-aged or seniors who do not use swimming pools of public universities. Thus, this study probes into constraint factors of middle-aged or seniors to swim in swimming pools of public universities. First, by open-ended questionnaires, it collects constraint factors of middle-aged or seniors who use swimming pools of public universities. Upon data obtained, according to experts and scholars opinions, it constructs questionnaire on constraint factors of middle-aged or seniors to use swimming pools of public universities. Finally, by Confirmatory Factor Analysis, it tests reliability and validity of scale in order to serve as reference for related units and industries. Research Purpose This study mainly adopts Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) in Structural Equation Modeling to test constraint factors of middle-aged or seniors using swimming pools in Taiwan in order to establish the scale of constraint factors of middle-aged or seniors using swimming pools. Specific research purposes are shown below: The Journal of Human Resource and Adult Learning, Vol. 14, Num. 1, June, 2018 issue 69

3 (1) To construct reliability of scale of constraint factors of middle-aged or seniors using swimming pools. (2) To construct validity of scale of constraint factors of middle-aged or seniors using swimming pools. RESEARCH METHOD Research Subjects This study treated middle-aged or seniors in northern, central and southern Taiwan as subjects to conduct questionnaire survey. It adopted convenience sampling, distributed 550 questionnaires and retrieved a total of 520 ones. Return rate was 94%; after deleting invalid questionnaires, this study obtained 500 valid questionnaires. Valid questionnaires were 90%. According to Table 1, there are 500 samples. In questionnaire survey, as to gender, most of them are females (there are 264 subjects and they are 52.8% in valid samples). There are 236 males and they are 47.2% in valid samples; as to age, most of them are years old and there are 208 samples. They are 41.6% in valid samples. Subjects above 71 years old are the least, including 11 subjects. They are 2.2% in valid samples; as to residential places, most of subjects are in northern Taiwan, including 200 subjects and they are 40.0% in valid samples. The second is central and southern Taiwan. There are 150 subjects and they are respectively 30.0% in valid samples. Table 1: Samples Basic Information Variable Category Frequency Percentage % Cumulative Percentage % Gender Male Female years old years old Age years old years old years old Above 71 years old Northern Taiwan Residential Places Central Taiwan Southern Taiwan Research Tools Scale of constraint factors of middle-aged or seniors when using swimming pools in public universities is based on open-ended questions. After collecting the data of What is the cause or limitation that you did not or could not use swimming pools of public universities?, subsequently, it invited three sports management scholars to review the content validity and revise the retrieved questionnaires. After revision, there are 24 items. Scale of constraint factors of middle-aged or seniors when using swimming pools of public universities in this study can be classified into 7 dimensions: personal capability, money, personal internal factor, environmental quality, time, accessibility and information. The responses of items are based on Likert 5-point scale. 70 The Journal of Human Resource and Adult Learning, Vol. 14, Num. 1, June, 2018 issue

4 Figure 1: Research Framework of Confirmatory Factor Analysis of Constraint Factors of Middle-aged and Seniors When Using Swimming Pools of Public Universities RESEARCH RESULTS Offending Estimate According to Table 2, error variance values in this study (between 0.01 and 0.06, standardized regression coefficients are between 0.64 and 0.93) are not higher than Hence, content of this study is approved by offending estimate test (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, and Black, 1998). It can conduct overall model fit test. The Journal of Human Resource and Adult Learning, Vol. 14, Num. 1, June, 2018 issue 71

5 Table 2: Test of Offending Estimate Items Standardized Regression Coefficients Error Variance A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A Measurement Model Analysis In measurement model analysis, this study mainly tests convergent validity and discriminant validity. According to suggestion of Bagozzi and Yi (1988), it measures convergent validity of model by standardized path coefficient, Average Variance Extracted and composite reliability. Test content is shown below: (1) Convergent validity As to test of convergent validity, this study adopts standardized path coefficient, Average Variance Extracted and composite reliability and the result is shown in Table 3. Factor loading of dimensions is shown below: personal capability is 0.89; money is 0.84~0.94; personal internal factor is 0.73~0.87; environmental quality is 0.84~0.88; time is 0.84~0.93; accessibility is 0.81~0.88 and information is 0.68~0.93; composite reliability of 7 constraint factors, personal capability, money, personal internal factor, environmental quality, time, accessibility and information, are 0.88, 0.94, 0.90, 0.92, 0.90, 0.89 and Average Variance Extracted are 0.79, 0.88, 0.68, 0.74, 0.76, 0.73 and They all match the standard (Wu, 2009). It means that internal quality of the model is positive, with good convergent validity. (2) Discriminant validity By confidence interval, this study attempts to find if correlation between two different dimensions show statistical difference (Torkzadeh, Koufteros, Pflughoeft, 2003). As shown in Table 4, confidence interval of correlation coefficients among the dimensions does not include 1. Hence, in this study, there is positive discriminant validity among the dimensions. 72 The Journal of Human Resource and Adult Learning, Vol. 14, Num. 1, June, 2018 issue

6 Table 3: Reliability of Manifest Variables, Construct Reliability of Latent Variables and Average Variance Extracted Latent Variables Manifest Variables Factor Loading Composite Reliability Average Variance Extracted Personal capability A A Money A A A Personal internal factor A A A A Environmental quality A A A A Time A A A Accessibility A A A Information A A A Table 4: Bootstrap Correlation Coefficients upon 95% Confidence Interval Parameter Estimated Bias-corrected Percentile Method Lower Upper Lower Upper Personal capability <--> Money Personal capability <--> Personal internal factor Personal capability <--> Environmental quality Personal capability <--> Accessibility Personal capability <--> Information Personal capability <--> Time Money <--> Personal internal factor Money <--> Environmental quality Money <--> Accessibility Money <--> Information Money <--> Time Personal internal factor <--> Environmental quality Personal internal factor <--> Accessibility Personal internal factor <--> Information Personal internal factor <--> Time Environmental quality <--> Accessibility Environmental quality <--> Information Environmental quality <--> Time Accessibility <--> Information Time <--> Accessibility Time <--> Information The Journal of Human Resource and Adult Learning, Vol. 14, Num. 1, June, 2018 issue 73

7 (3) Cross validity This study randomly clusters subjects of middle-aged or seniors in northern, central and southern Taiwan into two groups in order to examine the difference of models of two groups. According to the result, TLI difference between two models is lower than Thus, scale of constraint factors of use of swimming pools by middle-aged or seniors is stable, with cross validity (Little, 1997), as shown in Table 5. Table 5:Comparison of Invariance Model Degree of Freedom Chi-square Value P NFI Delta-1 IFI Delta-2 RFI rho-1 TLI rho2 Measurement Weights Structural Covariances Measurement Residuals (4) Structural model analysis In this study, structural model analysis of scale of constraint factors of use of swimming pools by middle-aged or seniors is based on method of Bagozzi and Yi (1988). It conducts overall model analysis by χ 2 test, ratio between χ 2 and degree of freedom and fit measures such as GFI, AGFI, RMSEA, CFI and PCFI. Adjusted fit measures of this study are shown below: GFI is 0.93, AGFI is 0.91, RMSEA is 0.05, CFI is 0.97 and PCFI is 0.79, as shown in Table 6. Fit measures in this study all match the judgment standard of model fit. Hence, model of this study is acceptable. Table 6: Fit Analysis of Research Model Fit Indices Acceptable Standard Model (before Adjustment) Model (after Adjustment) Judgment of Model fit χ 2 (Chi-square) The smaller the better χ 2 and ratio of degree of freedom < Fitted GFI > Fitted AGFI > Fitted RMSEA < Fitted CFI > Fitted PCFI > Fitted CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS Research Conclusion This study conducts precise construction of the scale. By experts content validity test and Confirmatory Factor Analysis, it examines reliability and validity of scale of constraint factors of middle-aged or seniors using swimming pools. According to research finding, it is a positive investigation tool. The scale includes 7 dimensions, personal capability, money, personal internal factor, environmental quality, information, time and accessibility and 24 items. As to test of reliability and validity, first, by suggestion of Hair et al. (1998), this study makes sure that offending estimate does not exist in the research model. Subsequently, based on Bagozzi and Yi (1988), it conducts convergent validity and discriminant validity. According to research findings, factor loading of 7 dimensions are 0.68~0.94. Besides, composite reliability are higher than 0.85 and Average Variance Extracted are higher than 0.6. Thus, it matches research standard (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988, Wu, 2009). The result demonstrates that scale of constraint factors of middle-aged or seniors using swimming 74 The Journal of Human Resource and Adult Learning, Vol. 14, Num. 1, June, 2018 issue

8 pools developed by this study shows good convergent validity; subsequently, as to discriminant validity, by confidence interval, this study realizes that correlation coefficients among dimensions do not include 1. It shows good discriminant validity among the dimensions; finally, as to structural model analysis, fit measures in this study all match the criterion proposed by Bagozzi and Yi (1998). Based on above, scale of constraint factors of middle-aged or seniors using swimming pools developed by this study reveals positive reliability and validity. In the said scale, as to money and accessibility, it is consistent with constraint factors such as lack of money, long distance and lack of transportation mentioned by Jackson (1994) and Jackson and Henderson (1995). As to personal capability and personal internal factor, it is similar to constraint factors mentioned by Crawford and Godbey (1987) and Shaw, Caldwell, and Kleiber (1996). As to information, it is similar to research of Shang (2001) on seniors leisure constraints in Hualien area. According to research of Fleischer and Pizam (2002) on constraints of participation in leisure activities of middle-aged or seniors and study of Yeh, Liu, and Chen (2011) on the seniors participation in sports tourism in the sea area of Kenting, middle-aged or seniors lowered participation in leisure activities due to factors such as time and transportation. The previous findings match time and accessibility stated in this study. As to environmental quality, it matches research of Jackson and Henderson (1995) on lack of facility in constraint factors of seniors participation in leisure activities. Suggestions As to research subjects of this study, they are mostly the middle-aged or seniors in northern Taiwan. It is suggested that future researchers can expand the scope of research subjects to balance the number of samples in residential places. It should complete the research result. In addition, future researchers can apply scale of constraint factors of middle-aged or seniors using swimming pools of public universities proposed by this study and explore different types of middle-aged or seniors in order to develop the following scales of constraint factors of use of swimming pools of public universities by various categories of middle-aged or seniors. Due to the limitation of locations and human resource, the subjects are middle-aged or seniors in northern, central and southern Taiwan and it lacks those in Hualien and Taitung areas. Therefore, the research findings can be insufficient. It is suggested that future researchers can treat middle-aged or seniors in different areas as subjects to explore constraint factors of middle-aged or seniors using swimming pools to serve as reference for public sector or related operational units. In addition, the research can also validate stability of research model, test research model by cross validity, classify codes of samples in this study by random numbers in order to find if there is significance among different clusters in order to enhance stability of the model. REFERENCES Ajzen, I. (1985). From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior. J. Kuhl, & J. Beckman (Eds.), Action-control: From cognition to behavior (pp ). Heidelberg: Springer. Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), Alexandris, K., Tsorbatzoudis, C., & Grouios, G. (2002). Perceived constraints on recreational sport participation: Investigating their relationship with intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and amotivation. Journal of Leisure Research, 34(3), 233. Barbosa, T. M., Keskinen, K. L., Fernandes, R., Colaço, P., Carmo, C., and Vilas-Boas, J. P. (2005). Relationships between energetic, stroke determinants, and velocity in butterfly. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 26(10), The Journal of Human Resource and Adult Learning, Vol. 14, Num. 1, June, 2018 issue 75

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