Attitude Correlations of Psychological Type Preference Pairs & Temperaments for Buddhist teens

Transcription

1 Attitude Correlations of Psychological Type Preference Pairs & Temperaments for Buddhist teens presented at the Symposium for the Network for Psychological Type & Christian Faith, King s Park, Northampton, November 2014 by Phra Nicholas Thanissaro Doctoral Researcher, WRERU, Centre for Education Studies, University of Warwick, Coventry. This paper sets out to identify attitude responses to Buddhist statements differing significantly according to Psychological Type Orientation (Extraversion-Introversion), Perceiving process (Sensing-Intuitive), Judging process (Thinking-Feeling), Attitude to the outside world (Judging- Perceiving), Dominant Function and Temperament for a sample of 214 mostly heritage-style self-identifying Buddhist teenagers (aged 13-20) growing up in Britain. Data were collected by a Buddhism-adapted version of the Young People s Values Survey which contained the Francis Psychological Type Scales and attitude questions covering the values areas of well-being, worries, friends, school, Religious Education, family, work, stereotyping & discrimination, social concern, substance use, right & wrong, the Media, Collectivism, Atheism, Religious Convictions, Religion & Society and the Supernatural. Aspects of Buddhism differing significantly according to Orientation included becoming friends on Sangha Day and the importance attached to temple-going. Aspects differing significantly according to Perceiving process included filial piety and perceived importance of Buddhist monks. Aspects of Buddhism differing significantly according to Judging process included deist beliefs, subjectivism, avoiding marijuana, Buddhist stories, being religious and collective worship. Use of alcohol differed significantly according to Attitude to the outside world. Attitudes varying according to temperament included paternalism, valuing school and less interest in music for the SJ s, belief in the subjectivity of happiness but less interest in the internet amongst NF s, downplay of monasticism and friendship among NT s and a sense of ethical laissez faire, liking meditation and music and being easily led by friends and spiritual teachers amongst SP s. Introduction C.G. Jung s personality theory has been operationalized into several empirical instruments including the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), the Keirsey Type Sorter (KTS) and the Francis Psychological Type Scales (FPTS) Correspondence: 233a Edgeley Road, Stockport SK3 0TL UK p.n.thanissaro@warwick.ac.uk. instruments able to describe the differences between people positively in a way that is easy to remember, engaging and of high impact. Psychological type theory, based on these instruments, distinguishes between two orientations (introversion [I] and extraversion [E]), two perceiving functions (sensing [S] and intuition [N]), two judging functions (thinking [T] and feeling [F]) and two attitudes (judging [J] and perceiving [P]). Taken together these four binary choices allow for 16 complete psychological type combinations. Within the Christian tradition theoretical links have been made between psychological type and chosen approach to spirituality, prayer, worship and scripture, based on the expectation that those of a particular psychological type will be drawn to religiosity that matches their type or compensates for it (Hall 2012). Tidy categorizations of religiosity by Type in theory (e.g. Michael and Norrisey 1984) when tested empirically are often less distinct in practice. When Ware et al. (2001) tested correlations between the Psychological Type of Christians and their preferred prayer type significant matching was found only in the case of the SJ Temperament. Nonetheless, a number of studies have used the MBTI (Francis 2002; Francis and Jones 1997; Francis and Jones 1998; Francis and Ross 1997; Ross et al. 1996) or the KTS (Francis and Louden 2000; Jones and Francis 1999; Ware et al. 2001) to investigate links between religious preferences and psychological type amongst Christians. There is growing evidence that religious attitudes (Francis and Jones 1999), beliefs (Francis and Jones 1998; Ross et al. 1996), preferences for prayer or spirituality (Francis 2002; Francis and Louden 2000; Francis and Ross 1997; Ware et al. 1989), charismatic orientation (Francis and Jones 1997) and Christian liberalism-conservatism are related to psychological type preferences. The perceiving function (S-N) was found to have a strong statistical correlation with the conservative-liberal dimension of Christianity, while the judging function (T-F) predicted the non-charismatic or charismatic style of Christians (Village 2005, 14-15). Where aspects of prayer categorized by eight pair-preferences were operationalized, although significant correlations were found between prayer preference and psychological type, correlations often linked beyond the target preference with scales of intuitive prayer, sensing prayer and thinking prayer failing to meet recommended reliability levels (Francis and Robbins 2008). To date exploration of the links between type and religiosity have ventured little outside the Christian tradition. A pioneering study of the links between psychological type and Buddhist religiosity was made by Silver, Ross & Francis (2012) who reported on 31 US and Canadian adherents to the New Kadampa Tradition (NKT). NKT Buddhists were characterized as having a high proportions of INFJ s (19%) and ISTJ s (19%) and a high proportion of Intuitive types (68%) and dominant intuitive types (45%) but left the question

2 unanswered of whether these conclusions could validly be extrapolated to other denominations of Buddhists since for Buddhism in the West, different styles 1 of practice may also impact correspondence between self-identification as Buddhist and Psychological Type. My own presentation at the network symposium last year (Thanissaro 2013) showed that Buddhist teens of a predominantly heritage style of religiosity had significantly more of a preference for Intuition (N), Dominant Intuition (Dt.N), and Judging (J) than the general UK population but tended more towards Sensing (S), Extraversion (E) and Judging (J) when compared with the previous NKT sample showing a nuancing of preferred preference according to style on the heritage-convert dichotomy. Methodology Sample The present study is based on a sample of 214 teenagers in the age range 13-20, all of whom self-identified as Buddhist. There were more or less even proportions of male (57%) and female (43%). The teenagers were drawn from Britain s Sri Lankan (45%), Thai (24%), Vietnamese (13%), Burmese (12%), Triratana Buddhist Community (4%) and Tibetan (2%) and Cambodian (1%) communities included teenagers of mixed race from intermarriage of Asian and Black or Asian and White parents. Ethnically, 76% were Any other Asian, 15% were of mixed ethnicity, 6% were White, 2% were Chinese and 1% Asian Indian. The sample focussed mainly on heritage Buddhists with the majority adhering to the Theravâda Buddhist denomination (82%), but also some Mahâyânists (14%) and Vajrayâna adherents (1%). Instrument A Buddhist version of the Young People s Values Survey [adapted for purpose from previous Centymca -style surveys (e.g. Francis and Kay 1995)] survey was fielded on paper at the temples and activities attended by Buddhist teenagers in England, Scotland and Wales in the period January 2013 to September Apart from various demographic questions, the survey asked 161 questions about attitudes in various values areas such as personal wellbeing, worries, collectivism, friends, school, religious education, work, family, stereotyping & discrimination, social concern, substance use, right & wrong, the media, atheism, religious convictions, religion & society, superstition and the supernatural. The survey also incorporated a 50-question FPTS (Francis 2005) able to identify the participants psychological type. Although the attitude questions in the survey used a five-point Likert scale, for ease of analysis the agree strongly and agree responses were recoded into one category styled 1 See Numrich (1996), Nattier (1995) or Baumann (2002) for discussion of the distinction between convert and heritage Buddhist categories. agree. This has been compared statistically with a non-agree category consisting of scores for the remainder of responses from the disagree strongly, disagree and not certain categories. SPSS syntax 2 was used to calculate psychological type. Findings describe the statistical links between agreement with attitude questions and aspects of psychological type in terms of preference pairs and temperament. Findings The findings section has been subdivided into three headings significant differences in agreement with attitude statements for each value statement for non-religious statements (profane), for religious statements (sacred) and in terms of temperament. Part 1: The Profane Orientation the E-I pair The E-I distribution for Buddhists was not significantly different from the general UK population although there were half as many extraverts amongst convert Buddhists as were found amongst heritage Buddhists. Table 1.1 shows non-religious attitudes that were significantly different between 2 The syntax was an algorithm for calculation which totalled the aggregate score for five questions on each of the four preference pair dichotomies where weightings were E=I, S=N+1, T=F+1 and J=P+4. The algorithm scored the FPTS in the direction of I, N, F and P

3 those of extravert orientation and those of introvert orientation. On the subject of wellbeing extraverts were more likely to find life worth living (88% as opposed to 71% for introverts), less likely to feel depressed (21% as opposed to 40% for introverts) and less likely to have considered taking their own life (20% as opposed to 32% for introverts). As might be expected, extraverts were more socially involved with friends. They were more likely to prefer living near to their close friends (77% as opposed to 52% for introverts), to find it helpful to talk through problems with their friends (80% as opposed to 67% for introverts) and to like the people they went to school with (92% as opposed to 71% for introverts), but were less worried about how they got on with other people (31% as opposed to 47% for introverts). Extraverts were more confident about their school experience being more likely to think school was preparing them for life (87% as opposed to 66% for introverts) and less likely to worry about school work (52% as opposed to 68% for introverts). In addition extraverts were less likely to consider pornography too readily available (52% as opposed to 68% for introverts). Perceiving process the S-N pair There were more than twice as many intuitives and Dominant Intuitives among Buddhists (as a whole) as are generally found in the UK population. Moreover, there were almost twice as many Intuitives and three times as many dominant intuitives amongst convert Buddhists as compared to heritage Buddhists. Table 1.2 shows non-religious attitudes that were significantly different between those who preferred the sensing (S) perceiving process and those who preferred the intuitive (N) perceiving process. Sensers were more likely to socialize with friends the same sex as themselves (52% as opposed to 36% for intuitives). 3 Sensers were more likely to find it helpful to discuss their problems with their parents (56% as opposed to 39% for intuitives for dads; 70% as opposed to 56% for intuitives for mums). 4 On the subject of school, sensers were more likely to consider school was helping them to prepare for life (83% as opposed to 70% for intuitives), 5 Dominant sensers were less likely to find school boring (8% as opposed to 22% for the rest) and Dominant Intuitives were more likely to worry about school work than the others (75% as opposed to 56% for the rest). In terms of working life, sensers were more likely to agree a job gave them a sense of purpose (81% as opposed to 66% for intuitives) and dominant intuitives were less likely to want to get to the top in their workplace (75% as opposed to 89% for the rest). Finally, Sensers were more likely to be concerned about risk of pollution to the environment (78% as 3 also borne out in comparison between Dominant Sensers and others and Dominant Intuitives and others 4 also borne out in comparison between Dominant Intuitives and others 5 also borne out in comparison between Dominant Intuitives and others opposed to 64% for intuitives) 6 and Intuitives were more strictly intolerant of shoplifting (no intuitives agreed there was nothing wrong with shoplifting as opposed to 6% for sensers). 6 also borne out in comparison between Dominant Sensers and others

4 Preferred attitude to the outside world - the J-P pair The Judging Process - the T-F pair There was no significant difference between the type distribution of Buddhists and the general UK population however, there were 1½ times as many Feelers (F) and half as many Dominant Thinkers (Dt.T) amongst the convert Buddhists as compared to the heritage Buddhists. Table 1.3 shows non-religious attitudes that were significantly different between those who preferred the thinking (T) judging process and those who preferred the feeling (F) judging process. Thinkers were more likely to have a life revolving around the internet (72% could not imagine life without internet access as opposed to 56% for feelers) but were less likely to buy things they had seen advertised on TV (34% as opposed to 53% for feelers). Dominant thinkers were less likely to consider the media made young people look bad (36% as opposed to 53% for others), were more ambitious in the workplace (with 97% wanting to reach the top in a future job as opposed to 83% for others) and were less tolerant of homosexuality (22% thought homosexuality unjustifiable as compared to 9% for others). Dominant feelers were less likely to consider taking their own life (13% as opposed to 29% for others) and were less prone to worry about schoolwork (45% as opposed to 64% for others). There were half as many Perceivers in the Buddhist sample as were found in the general UK population and but twice as many convert Buddhist Perceivers as heritage Buddhist Perceivers. Table 1.4 shows non-religious attitudes that were significantly different between those whose preferred attitude to the outside world was judging (J) and those whose preferred attitude to the outside world was the perceiving (P). Judgers were more likely to think the police did a good job (63% as opposed to 36% for perceivers). Perceivers seemed to find themselves in more trouble with their parents. Perceivers met with more disapproval from their family concerning the way they used their time (55% as opposed to 31% for judgers), received less respect from adults (48% as opposed to 26% for judgers), seeming to lend more importance to their music (84% as opposed to 62% for judgers) and letting it affect their mood (90% as opposed to 68% for judgers). Judgers were significantly more likely to agree that school was helping them prepare for life (80% as opposed to 61% for perceivers) but were less inclined to worry about contracting HIV (22% as opposed to 45% for perceivers) and were less likely to notice discrimination against White people (7% as opposed to 23% for perceivers) Part 2: The Sacred Orientation - the E-I Pair Table 2.1 shows religious attitudes that were significantly different between those of extravert orientation and those of introvert orientation. On the subject of Religious Education extraverts were more likely to find RE at school helped them understand Buddhism (64% as opposed to 43% for introverts) and learn new things about it (55% as opposed to 35% for introverts). RE also was

5 found more helpful to extraverts in understanding non-buddhist religions (87% as opposed to 74% for introverts) and extraverts were more enthusiastic that Collective Worship should be held in school (42% as opposed to 28% for introverts). For two variants of the question about the importance of Sangha Day, again extraverts were more enthusiastic about the festival as an opportunity to encourage friendship (80% as opposed to 67% for introverts), lending the festival greater importance (60% as opposed to 43% for introverts). By contrast, introverts were more likely to believe they could be Buddhist without going to a Buddhist temple (68% as opposed to 52% for extraverts). The Perceiving Process the S-N Pair Table 2.2 shows religious attitudes that were significantly different between those who preferred the sensing (S) perceiving process and those who preferred the intuitive (N) perceiving process. Sensers were more likely to want to keep their aging parents with them at home (71% as opposed to 52% for intuitives). 7 Those for whom intuition was not the dominant function seemed keener on monasticism, being more likely to consider spending time as a Buddhist monk beneficial to the world at large (64% as opposed to 42% for dominant intuitives), to think those who were already monks did a good job (91% as opposed to 72% for dominant intuitives) and to like that people joined a monastic order (78% as opposed to 60% for dominant intuitives). As with extraverts, those who did not have intuition as their dominant function were also more keen on the idea of 7 also borne out in comparison between Dominant Sensers and others and Dominant Intuitives and others Sangha Day, being more enthusiastic about the festival as an opportunity to encourage friendship (78% as opposed to 55% for dominant intuitives) and being more enthusiastic about encouraging friendship per se (81% as opposed to 65% for dominant intuitives). The Judging Process the T-F Pair Table 2.3 shows religious attitudes that were significantly different between those who preferred the thinking (T) judging process and those who preferred the feeling (F) judging process. Feelers were more likely to agree with theistic statements than Thinkers. Feelers were more likely to believe in God (32% as opposed to 18% for thinkers), 8 believe in the existence of God (35% as opposed to 19% for thinkers) 9 and think God very important in their life (31% as opposed to 17% for thinkers). Similarly, those with Feeling as their Dominant function were more likely to believe in Creation (17% as opposed to 5% for those of other dominant functions). Feelers were also 8 also borne out in comparison between Dominant Feelers and others 9 also borne out in comparison between Dominant Feelers and others

6 more likely to believe in their horoscope (30% as opposed to 17% for thinkers). 10 On substance use, feelers were more strongly opposed to consumption of marijuana (66% as opposed to 51% for thinkers), 11 but it was thinkers who were more strongly opposed to the smoking of cigarettes (83% as opposed to 69% for feelers). Feelers were more likely to agree with the subjective nature of happiness (88% as opposed to 74% for thinkers). Those who had Thinking as their dominant function were less likely to believe that they could be religious without going to a Buddhist temple (43% as opposed to 65% for others), while those who had Feeling as their dominant function were more likely to identify as a religious person (72% as opposed to 52% for others) and to be inspired by Buddhist stories (91% as opposed to 76% for others). Without mentioning that Sangha Day was a Buddhist festival, those with Feeling as their dominant function were more likely to say the festival was important to them (66% as opposed to 48% for others) and that people should be encouraged to be friends (91% as opposed to 74% for others). Finally, on the subject of Religious Education, those with Feeling as their dominant function were more likely to say they learned new things about Buddhism in RE (62% as opposed to 41% for others) and that Collective Worship should be held in school (49% as opposed to 32% for others). Attitude to the Outside World the J-P Pair Table 2.4 shows religious attitudes that were significantly different between those whose preferred attitude to the outside world was judging (J) and those whose preferred attitude to the outside world was perceiving (P). Judgers were more likely to think it wrong to get drunk (60% as opposed to 36% for perceivers), and perceivers were more likely to think there to be nothing wrong in buying alcoholic drinks under the legal age (26% as opposed to 9% for judgers). 10 also borne out in comparison between Dominant Feelers and others 11 also borne out in comparison between Dominant Feelers and others

7 Part 3: Temperament The SJ Temperament likely to say they could not imagine life without the internet (51% as opposed to 68% for the others). Those of the NF temperament were more likely to believe in the subjectivity of happiness, being more likely to say that enjoying life or hating it depends on how you see the world (92% as opposed to 76% for the others). The SJ combination has been dubbed the guardian temperament (Berens 1998) or in its Christian context the Ignatian temperament (Michael and Norrisey 1984). There were only four-fifths of the proportion of SJ s amongst Buddhists in general as compared to the general UK population, but four times as many SJ s among heritage Buddhists as were found among convert Buddhists. Table 3.1 shows attitudes of Buddhist teenagers that were significantly different between those whose preferred temperament was SJ and the others. Those of the SJ temperament were more likely to find it helpful to talk about problems with their dad (56% as opposed to 41% for the others). Those of the SJ temperament were less likely to say that the music they listened to influenced their mood (64% as opposed to 80% for the others). Those of the SJ temperament were more likely to express filial piety by wanting to keep their aging parents with them at home (70% as opposed to 55% for the others). Those of the SJ temperament were more likely to believe school was helping prepare them for life (85% as opposed to 70% for the others). The NF Temperament The NF combination has been dubbed the idealist temperament (Berens 1998) or in its Christian context the Augustinian temperament (Michael and Norrisey 1984). There were over twice as many NF s in the Buddhist sample as were found in the general UK population. Moreover, there were 2½ times as many NF s among converts as were found among heritage Buddhists. Table 3.2 shows attitudes of Buddhist teenagers that were significantly different between those whose preferred temperament was NF and the others. Those of the NF temperament were more independent from reliance on the internet, being less The NT Temperament The NT combination has been dubbed the rational temperament (Berens 1998) or in its Christian context the Thomistic temperament (Michael and Norrisey 1984). There were over twice as many NT s in the Buddhist sample as were found in the general UK population, but no significant difference in the ratio of NT s between the convert and heritage Buddhists. Table 3.3 shows attitudes of Buddhist teenagers that were significantly different between those whose preferred temperament was NT and the others. Those of the NT temperament were less likely to say they liked how Buddhists spent time in meditation as monks or nuns (61% as opposed to 78% for the others). Those of the NT temperament were less likely to encourage friendship (61% as opposed to 82% for the others). The SP Temperament The SP combination has been dubbed the artisan temperament (Berens 1998) or in its Christian context the Franciscan temperament (Michael

8 for the others). Finally, those of the SP temperament were more likely to believe that Jesus really rose from the dead (31% as opposed to 8% for the others). and Norrisey 1984). The SP temperament amongst Buddhists was only a third of that found in the general UK population, but there was no significant difference in the ratio of SP s between the convert and heritage Buddhists. Table 3.4 shows attitudes of Buddhist teenagers that were significantly different between those whose preferred temperament was SP and the others. Those of the SP temperament were more likely to say they were influenced by their friends (92% as opposed to 53% for the others). Those of the SP temperament were more likely to say the music they listened to influenced their mood (100% as opposed to 70% for the others). Those of the SP temperament were more likely to say they would enjoy killing any sort of animal (15% as opposed to 2% for the others). Those of the SP temperament were more likely to say they did not feel worth much as a person (38% as opposed to 11% for the others). Those of the SP temperament were more likely to say they felt the need for a spiritual teacher (77% as opposed to 40% for the others). Those of the SP temperament were more likely to say they were worried about their sex life (31% as opposed to 8% for the others). Those of the SP temperament were more likely to say there was nothing wrong in buying cigarettes under age (23% as opposed to 5% for the others). Those of the SP temperament were more likely to say that spending time in meditation was a constructive use of one s time (92% as opposed to 53% for the others). Those of the SP temperament were more likely to say that in the UK there was a lot of discrimination against Whites (38% as opposed to 8% Discussion To summarize the correlations described in this study, it has been found that aspects of Buddhism differing significantly according to Orientation included becoming friends on Sangha Day and the importance attached to templegoing. Aspects differing significantly according to Perceiving process included filial piety and perceived importance of Buddhist monks. If the attitude preferences of sensers represent a traditional, conservative or time-worn approach to Buddhism, traditional attitudes for Buddhists would seem to comprise valuing school, seeking advice from parents, socializing with friends of the same sex, environmental conservatism, looking after parents in their old age, monasticism and (the structure of) festivals and ceremonies. Aspects of Buddhism differing significantly according to Judging process included deist beliefs, subjectivism, avoiding marijuana, Buddhist stories, being religious and collective worship. Use of alcohol differed significantly according to Attitude to the outside world. Perceivers, possibly through problems with timemanagement and being more liberal in their attitude to alcohol use seemed to get in trouble more with their parents as a consequence of their type. Attitudes varying according to temperament included paternalism, valuing school and less interest in music for the SJ s, belief in the subjectivity of happiness but less interest in the internet amongst NF s, downplay of monasticism and friendship among NT s and a sense of ethical laissez faire, liking meditation and music and being easily led by friends and spiritual teachers amongst SP s. To put the correlations described in this study in perspective, it still remains the case that many aspects of Buddhism are not included or significant to the Psychological Type hermeneutic. Either Buddhist values transcend these differences or they encourage individuation. Suggestions for further research This paper is based on 214 self-identifying Buddhists now have Type data on 320 Buddhists which will increase the statistical power in distinguishing between the special type characteristics of convert and heritage Buddhists possibly for a future presentation

9 References Baumann, M. (2002). Paying Homage to the Buddha in the West. In M. Baumann and C. S. Prebish (Eds.), Protective Amulets and Awareness Techniques, or How to Make Sense of Buddhism in the West (pp ). London: University of California Press. Berens, L. V. (1998). Understanding yourself and others: an introduction to temperament. Huntington Beach, CA: Teleos. Francis, L. J. (2002). Psychological type and mystical orientation: anticipating individual differences within congregational life. Pastoral Sciences, 21: Francis, L. J. (2005). Faith and Psychology: Personality, Religion and the Individual. London: Darton, Longman & Todd. Francis, L. J. & Jones, S. H. (1997). Personality and charismatic experience among adult Christians. Pastoral Psychology, 45: Francis, L. J. & Jones, S. H. (1998). Personality and Christian belief among adult churchgoers. Journal of Psychological Type, 47: Francis, L. J. & Jones, S. H. (1999). Psychological type and tolerance for religious uncertainty. Pastoral Psychology, 47: Francis, L. J. & Kay, W. K. (1995). Teenage Religion and Values. Leominster: Gracewing. Francis, L. J. & Louden, S. H. (2000). Mystical orientation and psychological type: A study among student and adult churchgoers. Transpersonal Psychology Review, 4: Francis, L. J. & Robbins, M. (2008). Psychological type and prayer preferences: A study among Anglican clergy in the United Kingdom. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 11(1): Francis, L. J. & Ross, C. F. J. (1997). The perceiving function and Christian spirituality: distinguishing between sensing and intuition. Pastoral Sciences, 16(1): Hall, G. (2012). Applying psychological-type theory to faith: spirituality, prayer, worship and scripture. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 15(9): Jones, S. H. & Francis, L. J. (1999). Personality type and attitude toward Christianity among student churchgoers. Journal of Beliefs and Values, 20: Kendall, B. & McHenry, R. (1998). Technical supplement to the MBTI Manual. Oxford: Oxford Psychologists Press. Michael, C. P. & Norrisey, M. C. (1984). Prayer and Temperament: Different Prayer Forms For Different Personality Types. Charlottesville, VA: Open Door. Nattier, J. (1995). Visible & Invisible: the Politics of Representation in Buddhist America. Tricycle, The Buddhist Review, 5(1): Numrich, P. D. (1996). Old Wisdom in the New World: Americanization in Two Immigrant Theravada Buddhist Temples. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. Ross, C. F. J., Weiss, D. & Jackson, L. (1996). The relation of Jungian psychological type to religious attitudes and practices. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 6(4): Thanissaro, P. N. (2013) Psychological Type among Buddhist teenagers in Great Britain: preliminary survey findings, Symposium for the Network for Psychological Type and Christian Faith (King s Park, Northampton). Village, A. (2005). Christian belief about the Bible and the Holy Spirit in relation to psychological type. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 16: Ware, R., Knapp, C. R. & Schwarzin, H. (1989). Prayer form preferences of Keirsey temperaments and psychological types. Journal of Psychological Type, 17: Ware, R., Knapp, C. R. & Schwarzin, H. (2001). Prayer form preferences of Keirsey temperaments and psychological types. In L. J. Francis and J. Astley (Eds.), Psychological Perspectives on Prayer (pp ). Leominster: Gracewing

10 Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Revd. Canon Prof. Leslie J. Francis (University of Warwick) and Dr. Mandy Robbins (Glyndwr ^ University) for supervision of this research. The Author Phra Nicholas Thanissaro is a doctoral candidate at the University of Warwick s Centre for Education Studies. He has been funded until 2015 by a University of Warwick Chancellor s Scholarship to conduct research on Buddhist adolescent identity and religiosity in the UK. A Buddhist monk affiliated with the Dhammakâya Foundation, he holds a Masters degree from the University of Warwick and a Postgraduate Certificate of Education from Manchester Metropolitan University