THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERSON-ENVIRONMENT CONGRUENCE AND FUNDAMENTAL GOALS FOR AFRICAN AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN AMERICAN, FEMALE COLLEGE STUDENTS.

Transcription

1 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERSON-ENVIRONMENT CONGRUENCE AND FUNDAMENTAL GOALS FOR AFRICAN AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN AMERICAN, FEMALE COLLEGE STUDENTS. DISSERTATION Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Psychology Graduate School at The Ohio State University By Antonella Stimac Bath, MA * * * * * The Ohio State University 2002 Dissertation Proposal Committee: Dr. W. Bruce Walsh, Adviser Dr. Richard K. Russell Dr. Pamela Highlen Approved by Adviser Department of Psychology

2 ABSTRACT The main purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between race (African American and European American, females), congruence and life goals/desires (fundamental goals/motivation sensitivities). In summary, the Self- Directed Search was used to obtain the Holland-personality-types of the participants. Each participant s Holland-environment-code was derived from her college major. The participants Holland-personality-code and the Holland-environment-code were then used to define individuals (using a first-letter or C-index definition) as congruent or incongruent. Three MANOVAs were conducted with race and congruence as independent variables, and the scales of the Reiss Profile of Fundamental Goals and Motivation Sensitivities as dependent variables. Three ANOVAs were also used to compare African American and European American female college students, as well as congruent and incongruent groups, on total career decision-making selfefficacy (as measured by the Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy scale-short Form). In addition, two exploratory MANOVA analyses were conducted to investigate the relationship between the independent variables of race and career decision-making self-efficacy, and the dependent variables of fundamental goals/motivation sensitivities on the Reiss. In general, African American and ii

3 European American, female college students were found to differ on some of the Reiss scales, while congruent and incongruent individuals did not tend to differ. Results were generally similar, regardless of whether the first-letter or C-index was used to define congruence. Also, African American and European American female college students, as well as congruent and incongruent groups, did not differ in their levels of career decision-making self-efficacy. Finally, Career decision-making selfefficacy was associated with differences in expressed needs/desires and life goals as measured by the Reiss. Results generally suggest that factors such as race and selfefficacy, may impact the fundamental goals/motivation sensitivities expressed by these college students. iii

4 Dedicated to Chuck and Anna, Mike and Ornella. iv

5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank Dr. W. Bruce Walsh for constantly supporting me in my academic and personal goals, and for being forever patient with my progress. I greatly appreciate all of his guidance as my adviser, and colleague. I also wish to thank the Psychology Department members of my defense committee, Dr. Pamela Highlen and Dr. Richard Russell for their supportive guidance and feedback on my dissertation, as well as during my stay at Ohio State as a graduate student in the Counseling Psychology Department. In addition, I am very grateful to my parents, Mike and Ornella Stimac, who have always believed in me and encouraged my life endeavors. Without them, I would not be who and where I am today. Finally, I wish to thank my life partner Chuck and daughter Anna, who constantly replenish my spirit and provide unconditional love and support. I feel so very fortunate to have them in my life. v

6 VITA May 15,1972 Born Kenya, East Africa 1996.Bachelors of Science, with distinction in Psychology and with honors in the Liberal Arts, Cum Laude. The Ohio State University Course Assistant and Teaching Assistant, Department of Psychology The Ohio State University 1998 M.A. in Counseling Psychology. Master s Thesis Title: The Relationship Between Person- Environment Congruence and Fundamental Goals in Male and Female College Students. The Ohio State University Student Personnel Assistant (SPA) Counseling and Consultation Service. The Ohio State University Department Practicum Supervisor and Graduate Teaching Associate, Psychological Services Center. The Ohio State University PUBLICATIONS Srsic, C.S., Stimac, A.P., & Walsh, W.B., (2001). The Self-Directed Search in W.I. Dorfmanm, & Hearsen (Eds), Understanding psychological assessment: A Manual for counselors and clinicians (pp ). New York: Plenum Publishers. Major Field: Psychology FIELDS OF STUDY vi

7 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract ii Dedication iv Acknowledgments. v Vita vi List of Tables. ix List of Figures xii Chapters: 1: Introduction. 1 Overview of Holland s Theory... 1 Congruence-Incongruence : Literature Review. 12 Conceptual Overview of Research on the Relationship Between Congruence and Personal Characteristics for College Students 12 Summary of Selected Literature on Personal Characteristics and Congruence for Caucasian Research Participants.. 15 Summary of Selected Literature Concerning Holland s Theory and African American Research Participants.. 30 Fundamental Goals.. 41 Operationalizing Congruence.. 45 Unique Contributions and Research Hypotheses 49 3: Methodology. 53 vii

8 Participants 53 Instruments Self-Directed Search. 56 Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy scale, short-form..59 Reiss Profile of Fundamental Goals and Motivation Sensitivities 62 Congruence Procedure Overview of Analyses : Results Analysis-1/MANOVA-1 77 Analysis-2/MANOVA-2 80 Analysis-3/MANOVA-3 83 Analysis-4/ANOVA-1 86 Analysis-5/ANOVA-2 86 Analysis-6/ANOVA-3 87 Analysis-7/MANOVA-4.88 Analysis-8/MANOVA : Discussion..119 Summary of Analyses 119 Summary of Results Relation of Findings to Hypotheses Summary of Most Significant Findings. 134 Contributions of This Study to Counseling College Women and Congruence Literature Limitations.141 Directions for Future Research..144 References Appendices..154 A B C Names and Definitions of Fundamental Goals Measured on the Reiss Profile of Fundamental Goals and Motivation Sensitivities 154 Degrees of Freedom, Sum of Squares and Mean Squares for MANOVA Degrees of Freedom, Sum of Squares and Mean Squares for viii

9 MANOVA D E F Degrees of Freedom, Sum of Squares and Mean Squares for MANOVA Degrees of Freedom, Sum of Squares and Mean Squares for MANOVA Degrees of Freedom, Sum of Squares and Mean Squares for MANOVA ix

10 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 3.1 Race, School-Year and Age Demographics of Participants Family Background Demographics for All Participants Distribution of Holland Personality-Types (Highest Score) in the African American and European American Groups Distribution of Holland Personality-Types (Highest Score) in the Congruent and Incongruent Groups Distribution of Congruence Scores using First-Letter Definition for African American and European American Participants as well as for All Participants Combined Distribution of C-Index Scores for All Participants, African American and European American Groups Summary of All Major Analyses Summary of Five MANOVA Tests Results of Univariate Analyses on the Reiss Scales for MANOVA Reiss Scale Means and Standard Deviations for African American and European American Participants in MANOVA Reiss Scale Means and Standard Deviations for Congruent and Incongruent Groups in MANOVA Reiss Scale Means and Standard Deviations for Congruent and Incongruent, African American and European American Groups in MANOVA x

11 4.6 Results of Univariate Analyses on the Reiss Scales for MANOVA Reiss Scale Means and Standard Deviations for African American and European American Participants in MANOVA Reiss Scale Means and Standard Deviations for Low, Medium and Highly Congruent Groups in MANOVA Reiss Scale Means and Standard Deviations for Low, Medium and Highly Congruent, African American and European American Groups in MANOVA Results of Univariate Analyses on the Reiss Scales for MANOVA Reiss Scale Means and Standard Deviations for African American and European American Participants in MANOVA Reiss Scale Means and Standard Deviations for Low Congruence and High Congruence Groups in MANOVA Reiss Scale Means and Standard Deviations for Low Congruence and High Congruence, African American and European American Groups in MANOVA Summary of Three ANOVA Tests Total Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy Means and Standard Deviations for African American and European American, Congruent and Incongruent Groups in ANOVA Total Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy Means and Standard Deviations for African American and European American, Low Congruence, Medium Congruence and High Congruence Groups in ANOVA Total Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy Means and Standard Deviations for African American and European American, Low Congruence and High Congruence Groups in ANOVA Results of Univariate Analyses on the Reiss Scales for MANOVA xi

12 4.19 Reiss Scale Means and Standard Deviations for African American and European American Participants in MANOVA Reiss Scale Means and Standard Deviations for Low, Medium and High Self-Efficacy Groups in MANOVA Reiss Scale Means and Standard Deviations for Low, Medium and High Self-Efficacy, African American and European American Groups in MANOVA Results of Univariate Analyses on the Reiss Scales for MANOVA Reiss Scale Means and Standard Deviations for African American and European American Participants in MANOVA Reiss Scale Means and Standard Deviations for Low and High Self-Efficacy Groups in MANOVA Reiss Scale Means and Standard Deviations for Low and High Self-Efficacy, African American and European American Groups in MANOVA xii

13 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1.1 Hexagonal Model.. 3 xiii

14 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The person-environment approach to vocational psychology, which seeks to examine the utility of matching a person with his or her work environment, effectively sprouted in 1909 when Parsons suggested the notion of training young men to identify their personal traits and apply them to different occupational settings (see Osipow & Fitzgerald, 1995, p.14). Holland s theory of vocational behavior (also a person-environment approach to psychology) developed momentum in the 1970s. It exists today as one of the most heavily researched and applied theories related to person-environment interaction, and associated outcomes. Overview of Holland s Theory of Vocational Behavior Holland (1997) suggests that vocational interests and personality are related. According to Holland, the act of choosing a vocation is an expression of one s personality. It follows then that vocational interest inventories (e.g., Self- Directed Search, or the Vocational Preference Inventory) provide an outlet for the expression of one s personality. In addition, Holland assumes that vocational stereotypes are fairly reliable (e.g., carpenters tend to be handy), and people found within particular vocations tend to have similar personalities and interest. Such 1

15 similarities between people within particular vocational environments are assumed to create a characteristic environment that is associated with that vocation. A good match, or congruence between a person s personality and his or her environment is expected to be associated with outcomes such as satisfaction, stability, achievement and personal adjustment. Specifically, the four main working assumptions of Holland s (1997) theory of vocational behavior are as follows: 1. An individual can be classified based on the resemblance of her/his personality to six model personality types, namely: Realistic (R), Investigative (I), Artistic (A), Social (S), Enterprising (E), Conventional (C). 2. Most environments can also be classified based on a resemblance to six model environment types (R, I, A, S, E, and C). 3. People tend to seek environments which are compatible with their needs, values, and general personality traits. 4. Educational and vocational behavior is influenced by the interaction between a person and his/her environment. In addition, Holland (1997) suggests that Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional personality (and environment) types can be arranged according to a hexagonal model (see Figure 1.1). The relative placings of the personality types on the hexagon indicate the theoretical relationships between the types. Those types which are closer to each other on the hexagon share greater resemblance, while those that are farther from each other share less resemblance. For 2

16 Realistic Investigative Conventional Artistic Enterprising Social Figure 1.1: Hexagonal Model (Holland, 1997) 3

17 example, Artistic and Social types (which are adjacent) are more similar to each other, as compared to Artistic and Conventional types, which are more distant, and therefore, less similar. Following, is an elaboration upon the characteristics associated with the six model personality types, and the six model environment types. Holland (1997) describes the six model personality types as follows: Realistic types tend to prefer activities related to the manipulation of objects, tools, machines and animals, (p. 21) which in turn result in competencies in manual, mechanical, agricultural, electrical, and technical (p. 21) areas. Realistic types also have the tendency to be averse towards educational or therapeutic activities (p. 21) and therefore tend to show deficits in competencies related to these areas. Investigative types tend to prefer activities which involve observational, symbolic, systematic, and creative investigation of physical, biological and cultural phenomenon, (p. 22) which in turn are likely to result in competencies in the areas of mathematics and science. Investigative types tend to be averse towards persuasion, social and repetitive activities (p. 22) resulting in deficits in related competency areas. Artistic types have a tendency to prefer ambiguous, free, unsystematized activities, (p.23) which involve creating products and art work by manipulating physical, verbal, or human materials (p.23). Such behaviors are likely to result in 4

18 artistic competencies (e.g., language, art and music). Artistic types tend to be averse to explicit, systematic, and ordered activities, (p.23) resulting in deficits in clerical and/or business related competencies. Social types tend to prefer activities related to working with people in order to inform, train, develop, cure, or enlighten (p. 24). These activities are likely to result in competencies in human relations areas (e.g., interpersonal, educational). Social types tend to be averse to explicit, ordered, systematic activities involving materials, tools, or machines (p.24). Therefore, they tend to show deficits in manual and technical competencies (p.24). Enterprising types tend to prefer activities involving manipulation of others to attain organizational goals or economic gain (p. 25). These activities are likely to lead to competencies in leadership, interpersonal, and persuasion abilities (p.25). Enterprising types tend to be averse to observational, symbolic, and systematic activities (p.25). They tend to show deficits in scientific competencies. Conventional types tend to prefer activities involving the explicit, ordered, systematic manipulation of data (p.27) (e.g., filing, reproducing and organizing materials) which are likely to result in competencies in clerical, computational, and business systems (p.27). Conventional types tend to be averse to ambiguous, free, exploratory, or unsystematized activities, (p.27) and tend to show deficits in artistic competencies. Holland is not highly specific when describing how these personality types develop. He suggests that opportunities created by parents, in addition to parental 5

19 attitudes, biology and social learning, differentially contribute to the development of preferences, competencies, interests and values, in growing individuals. These in turn are expected to ultimately lead to the development of characteristic personality types. As previously mentioned, Holland s (1997) theory also posits that there are six model environments. Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising and Conventional environments, are defined based on the occupants that dominate these environments. As with the personality types, environment types are arranged in a hexagonal pattern (see Figure 1.1), where the relative distance between types is an index of the similarity between types. Again, those types which are closer to each other on the hexagon share greater resemblance (e.g., Realistic and Investigative), while those farther from each other share less resemblance (e.g., Realistic and Social). According to Holland (1997), characteristics of the six model environment types are as follows: Realistic environments contain a majority of Realistic personality types, and emphasize opportunities for explicit ordered or systematic manipulation of objects, tools, machines, and animals (p.43). In general, Realistic environments reinforce technical competencies, mechanical ability, traditional values, power and material possessions. Investigative environments contain a majority of Investigative personality types, and emphasize experiences with observation and symbolic, systematic, creative investigation of physical, biological, or cultural phenomena, (p.44). In 6

20 general, Investigative environments reinforce viewing the world in complex, abstract, independent, and original ways (p.44) and reward scientific competencies and values. Artistic environments contain a majority of Artistic personality types, and emphasize experiences with ambiguous, free, unsystematized activities to create art forms or products (p.45). In general, Artistic environments reinforce unconventional, individual worldviews, and artistic values. Social environments contain a majority of Social personality types, and promote experiences in working with people in order to inform, train, develop, cure, or enlighten (p.46). In general, Social environments reinforce social competencies, as well as empathic and flexible view points. Enterprising environments are dominated by Enterprising personality types, and promote experiences with manipulation of others to attain organizational or self-interest goals, (p.46). In general, Enterprising environments encourage and reinforce leadership, aggressiveness, self-confidence, enterprising values, power and material possessions. Conventional environments contain a majority of Conventional personality types, and promote experiences with explicit, ordered systematic manipulation of data such as keeping records, filing materials... operating business and data processing equipment, (p.47). In general, Conventional environments encourage and reinforce conformity, orderliness, dependability, and material possessions. 7

21 Knowledge about a person s personality type and work or educational environment is expected to aid in predictions of outcomes related to educational and/or vocational choice, stability and achievement. Holland (1997) proposes several secondary assumptions which are expected to moderate predictions based on the four main working assumptions described earlier. These secondary assumptions include: (1) Consistency, which is the degree of similarity or relatedness between personality types that represent an individual, or between environment types that represent an environment. For example, an individual (or environment) that most closely resembles a Realistic, followed by an Investigative type, is highly consistent, as compared to an individual (or environment) which most closely resembles a Realistic, followed by a Social type; (2) Differentiation, is the degree to which a person can be defined in terms of the similarity of his/her personality to a single type (highly differentiated) v. many types (undifferentiated). This concept similarly holds for environments; (3) Identity, represents an individual s goals, talents, and interests. Environmental identity represents the goals, tasks and rewards of a particular organization or environment; (4) Calculus, is the relationship between types suggested by the distances between types, based on the hexagonal model. For example, as indicated by hexagonal arrangement smaller distances (closer proximity) between personality or environment types, are associated with stronger relationships (e.g., greater similarity); (5) Congruence, is the degree of match between an individuals personality and his/her environment. 8

22 According to Holland (1997) high consistency is expected to be associated with more predictable outcomes. Strong identity is associated with stable and clear personal goals, talents, and interests, as well as environmental goals, tasks and rewards. Congruence and the hexagonal model (calculus) are of particular importance to this research. The relationship between a person and his/her environment (e.g., the compatibility or congruence between the two) is expected to influence educational and vocational choices and outcomes. Congruence-Incongruence. According to Holland s (1997) theory, an optimal person-environment match (congruence) is one where a person s personality, perfectly matches his/her vocational/educational environment. For example, an Investigative person working in an Investigative environment represents a congruent person-environment match. Holland (1997) hypothesizes that congruence is likely to result in positive outcomes such as satisfaction, achievement, vocational success and stability. He suggests that positive outcomes are likely to result from personenvironment congruence because the environment will provide rewards and opportunities familiar to, and needed by, that personality type. In addition, the environment will reinforce abilities and personal dispositions associated with that type (Holland, 1997). Importantly, a congruent environment will also enable each type to avoid the activities and ideas that they do not value. In contrast, a suboptimal or incongruent person-environment match (e.g., an Investigative person in an Enterprising environment) will be less likely to result in positive outcomes. Holland s theory suggests that an incongruent match will be associated with attempts 9

23 to (a) change the environment to obtain a more congruent fit; (b) change oneself to better fit the environment; (c) leave the incongruent environment in search of a congruent environment. Incongruence is therefore associated with a greater likelihood of dissatisfaction, poor work performance and job change (Holland, 1997). In summary, Holland s theory of vocational behavior posits that personalities, as well as work environments, can be defined as Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising and Conventional, respectively. In addition, the six personality types (like the six environment types) are related to each other as expressed by the Hexagonal Model (Figure 1.1). Types closer to each other share greater resemblance than types farther away, or opposite from one another on the hexagon. Finally, if a person is well matched to his/her work environment (congruent), that person is likely to be more satisfied and more productive than if he/she is not well matched to the environment (incongruent). The Hexagonal Model, as well as the concepts of person/environment-types and congruence will be most important in the current study. Over the years, as a way of testing Holland s theory and attempting to find a way to predict behavior, researchers have sought to explore what types of personvariables or person-characteristics tend to be associated with the state of congruence. For example, Walsh and Hanle (1975) found that congruent (versus incongruent) individuals were more likely to be work-oriented, independent decision-makers, and involved in the process of making career choices. Other studies have found no relationship between congruence and certain person-characteristics. 10

24 Since the present study is interested in exploring whether or not personcharacteristics are associated with congruence, the next chapter will proceed with a summary of selected literature that pertains to examining the relationship between congruence and personal characteristics of individuals. The studies of interest are ones in which researchers sought to explore whether or not congruent and incongruent individuals differed in terms of academic and personality characteristics (e.g., academic planning, desire for knowledge, sociability). The next chapter will also discuss literature pertaining to the validity of Holland s theory for African Americans. This is important since this study will be using concepts of Holland s theory as it seeks to make comparisons between European American and African American, congruent and incongruent females in terms of the person-characteristics of fundamental goals and motivation sensitivities (innate goals/desires). Fundamental goals and motivation sensitivities are described and discussed. Also, literature pertaining to various operationalizations of congruence is reviewed, and hypotheses for the current study are stated. 11

25 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW Conceptual Overview of Research on the Relationship Between Congruence and Personal Characteristics for College Students. A number of researchers have explored the relationship between congruence and personal characteristics of study participants. For the purposes of this study, personal characteristics are general characteristics such as academic effectiveness variables (e.g., academic adjustment, success, planning), and personality variables (e.g., tolerance, sociability, autonomy) associated with any given individual. The purpose(s) of past studies has/have been to examine whether congruence (v. incongruence and/or undecidedness) of college students (mainly European American), is associated with general and/or particular personal characteristics. For example, Walsh and Hanle (1975) found congruent individuals to be more work- and career-oriented, as compared to incongruent individuals. Generally, congruence in such studies has been defined as a match between the person-code of an individual (e.g., an individual s R or RI or RIA personality-orientation) and the environment-code (e.g., S, SE or SEC 12

26 environment-type) associated with that individual s chosen college major, occupation or desired occupation. For example, a person with a person-code of Social who wants to be a Counseling Psychologist (which is a Social environment-type) would be defined as congruent. Incongruence was generally defined as a mismatch between an individual s person-code and environment-code. For example, a person with a Social personality orientation who was in a Realistic environment was defined as incongruent. In many of the studies, person-codes were developed by using instruments such as the Vocational Preference Inventory (Holland, 1985) or the Self- Directed Search (see Holland, Fritzsche & Powell, 1994). Environment codes were developed using coding resources such as the Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes (Gottfredson, Holland & Ogawa, 1982) or the Educational Opportunities Finder (Rosen, Holmberg & Holland, 1994). These coding resources provide Holland environment codes for occupation and educational environments, respectively. Besides exploring the relationship between congruence and personal characteristics, many of the same studies also investigated which (if any) personal characteristic differentiated males and females (whether females and males differed in terms of locus of control, concern for others, etc.). Some studies found main effects of congruence, main effects of gender and/or significant interactions between congruence and gender in terms of personal characteristics (e.g., Walsh, 1974; Walsh & Lewis, 1972; Walsh, Spokane & Mitchell, 1976; Walsh & Russell, 1969; Stimac, 1998), while others reported weak and/or nonsignificant relationships (e.g., Spokane & Derby, 1979; Walsh, Howard, O Brien, Santa-Maria & Edmonson, 1973). 13

27 Most of the research has investigated Holland s concepts with mainly European American population samples. Other group samples (e.g., African American) have been explored in order to examine the utility of Holland s concepts, but to a much lesser extent. With African American study participants, there is evidence to suggest that some of Holland s concepts (e.g., Hexagonal Model, personality and environment types) are generally valid. However, more research is needed to continue to explore the relationship between race and concepts associated with Holland s Theory of Vocational Behavior (e.g., congruence). For the purposes of this paper, the term race will also be inclusive of ethnicity and cultural background. Due to the variety of findings in the literature, there is a need for more research examining the relationship between congruence and personal characteristics. Due to its absence there is also a need to examine the relationship between race, congruence and personal characteristics. A main purpose of this study is to replicate and extend previous findings (Stimac, 1998) indicating that there are differences between congruent and incongruent college students, in terms of personal characteristics. In the present study, the personal characteristics under examination are fundamental goals and motivation sensitivities which are intrinsic or innate desires/motivators (see Reiss 2000a). To add to the existing literature, this study also seeks to investigate the relationship between race (African American vs. European 14

28 American), congruence (e.g., congruent vs. incongruent), and fundamental goals and motivation sensitivities. There is no existing literature that examines this relationship. In sum, the questions of interest are: (1) Do congruent and incongruent individuals differ in terms of fundamental goals and motivation sensitivities?; (2) Do African Americans and European Americans differ in terms of fundamental goals and motivation sensitivities?; (3) Do race (e.g., African American or European American) and congruence (e.g., congruent or incongruent) interact for some fundamental goals and motivation sensitivities?; (4) Do different operationalizations of congruence yield different findings?. Below are summaries of selected literature, most relevant to, and consistent with, the purposes and design of the present study. Summary of Selected Literature on the Relationship Between Personal Characteristics and Congruence for Caucasian Research Participants. The following section reviews literature which explores the relationship between congruence and personal characteristics (e.g., emotional well-being, desire for knowlege) for samples consisting of mainly European Americans. The basic plan of these studies was to compare congruent and incongruent individuals to see if they differed in terms of personal characteristics. Walsh and Russell (1969) examined the relationship between congruence and personal adjustment (as measured by the Mooney Problem Checklist), in male and female college students. All students were third-quarter freshpersons. A match between an individual s strongest person-code (personality type/orientation) on the 15

29 Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI), and the first letter of the Holland environment-code representing that individual s college major choice, were used to classify participants as congruent. A mismatch between an individual s person-code and environment-code led that individual to be classified as incongruent. The Mooney Problem Checklist (Mooney & Gordon, 1950) was used to help students express their personal problems or difficulties. A higher score on the Mooney Problem Checklist was indicative of a greater number of problems. Walsh and Russell (1969) hypothesized that there would be no main effect of congruence, no main effect of gender, and no interaction effect between congruence and gender. Results supported the second and third hypotheses such that no main effect of gender, and no interaction between gender and congruence were found. However, results supported the rejection of the first hypothesis, indicating that there was a main effect of congruence on the dependent variable. In general, congruent (v. incongruent) participants reported having less difficulty with adjustment (fewer adjustment problems). Specifically, Walsh and Russell (1969) reported that congruent males exhibited significantly fewer personal adjustment problems than did incongruent males. Results for congruent (v. incongruent) females were in the same direction, though not statistically significant. In this study, personal adjustment (as measured by the Mooney Problem Checklist) was assumed to represent an important aspect of personal stability, therefore these results suggest that congruence can be, to some extent, associated with personal stability. The authors 16

30 concluded that this study serves as a concurrent validation for Holland s theory of vocational choice, which suggests that congruence is associated with personal stability. A study by Walsh and Lewis (1972) examined the relationship between congruence (congruent, incongruent, undecided), gender (male, female) and personality variables, as defined by the Omnibus Personality Inventory (OPI). Participants were all second quarter freshpersons. Congruence was defined as the match between a student s college-major choice, and primary VPI code. A main effect of congruence was revealed on the Personal Integration, Impulse Expression, Anxiety Level and Response-Bias scales of the OPI. A main effect of gender was reported on the Theoretical Orientation, Impulse Expression, Altruism and Masculinity-Femininity scales. In addition, a significant interaction between group and gender was reported on the Impulse Expression, Personal Integration and Anxiety Level scales. The authors caution that some of the significant F-Tests in this study may have been due to related, or intercorrelated, scales on the OPI. Walsh and Lewis (1972) proceeded with follow-up (Tukey b) analyses on each significant scale. In terms of significant findings on the Masculinity-Femininity scale, males (v. females) were less likely to report problems, as well as feelings of anxiety and inadequacy. Females (v. males) reported greater social and esthetic interests. In terms of gender differences on the Theoretical Orientation scales, males 17

31 (v. females) reported a greater likelihood of approaching problems in a logical or analytical manner. On the Altruism scale, females generally reported greater trust in their relationships with others. In terms of specific groups (e.g., congruent and incongruent males and congruent and incongruent females, undecided males and females) on the Personal Integration scale, congruent males (v. incongruent and undecided males) reported less social alienation and emotional disturbance. On the Anxiety-level scale, congruent (v. undecided) males reported fewer feelings of anxiety (e.g., less tension). On the Impulse Expression scale, incongruent and undecided males (v. the other four groups) reported a greater imaginative impulsiveness, and orientation towards feelings. Walsh and Lewis (1972) interpreted their results as being generally supportive of an association between congruence and personal adjustment, stability and satisfaction, at least for congruent males. Walsh (1974) investigated the relationship between congruence (congruent v. incongruent), gender, and personality variables using both the California Personality Inventory (CPI), and the Omnibus Personality Inventory (OPI). Participants were mainly male and female, upper level college students (e.g., junior or senior undergraduates, graduate students). Congruence was defined as a match between a student s current occupational choice, as reported in the Daydreams section of the Self-Directed Search, and his/her high-point (one-letter) code in the Self- Directed Search Summary section. Results yielded main effects for congruence on eight CPI scales, and one OPI scale. There was a main effect of gender on four CPI 18

32 scales, and three OPI scales. There was also a significant congruence X gender interaction on one CPI scale, and two OPI scales. Again, Walsh (1974) cautions that some significant F-test results may have been due to intercorrelations between scales within individual instruments (CPI or OPI), as well as between the CPI and OPI. In terms of the differences between congruent and incongruent individuals on the CPI scales, results indicated that in general, congruent (v. incongruent) individuals scored higher on the Dominance, Capacity for Status, Well-being, Responsibility, Self-control, Tolerance, Achievement via Conformance, and Intellectual Efficiency scales. In terms of the OPI, congruent (v. incongruent) individuals scored higher on the Personal Integration scale indicating the least number of attitudes associated with social alienation. Walsh (1974) concluded that congruence appears to be associated with vocational and personal stability. In terms of general differences between males and females on the CPI scales, males scored higher on the Dominance and Capacity for Status scales, while females scored higher on the Femininity scale. In terms of gender differences on the OPI scales, females generally scored higher on the Estheticism scale, while males generally scored higher on the Masculinity-Femininity scales. In general, males (v. females) showed a lower likelihood of reporting anxiety and adjustment problems, while females (v. males) indicated stronger esthetic and social interests (Walsh, 1974). Walsh (1974) also found a significant congruence X gender interaction on the Self-Acceptance scale of the CPI, and the Impulse Expression and Personal 19

33 Integration scales of the OPI. Walsh (1974) reports that in general, results indicated that congruent males (v. incongruent females) were more likely to report themselves as being aggressive, active, resourceful, confident, and ambitious. Congruent males indicated that they perceived themselves as being energetic, alert and valuing intellectual achievement, while incongruent males and females reported feeling unambitious, cautious, and pessimistic. In addition, congruent males tended to indicate a greater sense of well-being, as compared to both incongruent males and females. Congruent males and females (v. incongruent males and females) indicated greater self-regulation and clearer thinking. Congruent males (v. incongruent males) indicated higher responsibility and conscientiousness. Results were interpreted as suggesting that congruence (particularly in males) is related to better personal adjustment, stability, and satisfaction. Walsh, Spokane and Mitchell (1976) investigated the relationship between congruence (congruent, incongruent, undecided), gender, and academic adjustment (as measured by the College Inventory of Academic Adjustment or CIAA). Participants were male and female, freshman and sophomore, college students. The peak score (person-code representing the strongest personality type) on the Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI) defined each participant s personality orientation. Each participant s college major choice was used to derive a singleletter environment-code for that individual. Congruence was defined based on the match between the peak VPI person-code, and the environment-code associated with an individual s chosen college major. If the one-letter VPI person-code matched the 20

34 environment-code, then an individual was defined as congruent. If there was a mismatch between the person-code and environment-code, then the individual was defined as incongruent. Congruent, incongruent and undecided participants (those who indicated that they were undecided, or simply did not indicate a chosen college major) were compared to in terms of the dependent variables. Walsh, Spokane, and Mitchell (1976) tested the hypotheses that there would be a main effect for congruence, and there would not be a main effect for gender, or a significant gender X congruence interaction. An ANOVA for unequal numbers, followed by Tukey b tests was used to examine differences between the independent variables on the dependent variables. Analyses indicated a main effect of gender, a main effect of congruence and a significant interaction between congruence and gender, on academic adjustment as measured by scales on the CIAA. There was a main effect of group on the Curricular Adjustment scale, and a main effect of gender on the Personal Efficiency scale of the CIAA. The gender X congruence interaction was significant for the Maturity of Goals and Level of Aspiration scale. Tukey b analyses were used to examine specific differences between the independent variables on the dependent variable, as indicated by the analysis of variance. Results suggested that the congruent participants (v. the incongruent and undecided participants) were more likely to be satisfied with college, their curriculum, and choices related to their college major. These analyses yielded results suggesting that congruent students tend to be more organized, motivated and planful. 21

35 Though the ANOVA analyses revealed a significant effect for group on the Curricular Adjustment scale, no significant group differences were revealed by the follow-up Tukey b analyses. However, the direction of results on the Curricular Adjustment scale were as expected (congruent individuals had higher scores than incongruent individuals). This was interpreted by the authors as suggesting that congruent students also may tend to report greater satisfaction with college. In terms of the gender variable, on average, females (v. males) scored significantly higher on the Personal Efficiency scale of the CIAA, suggesting that females were more likely than males to report greater effectiveness in their use of time and planning. In terms of the interaction on the Maturity of Goals and Level of Aspiration scale, congruent males and females (v. undecided males) were more likely to report having an awareness of educational and life goals, as well as an awareness of the effort that would be needed to achieve these goals. In general the results of this study suggest that congruence (v. incongruence or undecidedness) is associated with better academic adjustment. These results also suggest differences between males and females in terms of particular academic adjustment variables. Though they caution that one explanation for some of the significant F-test results could have been because of intercorrelations (and therefore relatedness) between CIAA scales, Walsh, Spokane, and Mitchell (1976) generally concluded that this study supports Holland s notion that personenvironment congruence can be associated with academic adjustment, and greater stability in decisions regarding college majors. 22

36 One study, which made use of more than one definition of congruence, yielded mixed results while investigating the relationship between congruence and personal characteristics of participants. A study by Walsh, Howard, O Brien, Santa- Maria, and Admondson (1973) explored acceptance of self and others (Berger Scales), satisfaction (College Student Satisfaction Questionnaire), self-concept (Tennesee Self-Concept Scales) and vocational maturity (Vocational Development Inventory) in congruent and incongruent, male and female college students (see Walsh et al., 1973, for the references for each of the above mentioned instruments). Participants were male and female freshpersons, in at least their second quarter of college. Walsh et al., (1973) hypothesized that there would be a main effect of gender, a main effect of congruence, and a significant congruence X gender interaction on the dependent variables of satisfaction, self-concept, vocational maturity and acceptance of self and others. In the first set of planned analyses, congruence was defined as the match between a person s high-point person-code on the Self-Directed Search (SDS) and the first-letter environment-code of their current occupational choice (as defined by the Occupation s Finder see Holland, 1970). Based on a first-letter person-environment match, congruence was not found to be associated with self-acceptance, satisfaction, vocational maturity and self-concept (with one exception where congruent males indicated a greater capacity for healthy self-criticism and openness, as compared to incongruent females). Gender differences were found on five of the six satisfaction subscales. Congruent and incongruent males were generally more satisfied with 23

37 various dimensions of college life, as compared to both female groups. Incongruent females reported greater acceptance of others, as compared to congruent males. In an unplanned analysis, Walsh, et al., (1973) tested the same hypotheses using a more stringent definition of congruence. An individual was considered congruent if the first two letters of her/his SDS summary person-code, perfectly matched the first two letters of the environment-code of his/her current occupational choice. Though no relationship was found between congruence or incongruence and self-acceptance, vocational maturity and self-concept, there was a significant relationship between congruence and four satisfaction variables. Results suggested that congruent males (v. incongruent females) tend to be more satisfied with general physical working conditions, attitudes of students and faculty, their educational development, and overall personal adjustment/satisfaction. In terms of the gender variable, the two-letter-match definition of congruence yielded the same findings as the one-letter-match definition. Again, congruent males reported the highest mean scores on five of six satisfaction scales. Findings again suggested that females (congruent and incongruent) tend to be more accepting of others than congruent males. In general, congruent males reported higher personal adjustment scores, as compared to incongruent males. Though they warn that intercorrelations among scales may have resulted in some of the significant F-test results, Walsh et al., (1973) concluded that when using the more rigorous definition of congruence, congruent males followed expected patterns of person- 24

38 environment relations (e.g., generally more satisfied). These authors suggested that different levels of congruence may exist (e.g., based on one, two and three code-letter matches). Spokane and Derby (1979) examined the relationship between congruence and locus of control, adaptability and resourcefulness, and certainty of college major choice (as measured by the Locus of Control Scale, and Baron s Ego Strength Scale). Consistency, perceived congruence, and satisfaction were also dependent variables. All participants were female, undergraduate, college students. A match between the Vocational Preference Inventory high-point person-code (raw score) and the firstletter environment-code for expressed college major was used to define congruent individuals. A mismatch between a person-code and environment-code defined an incongruent individual. Spokane and Derby (1979) hypothesized that congruent (v. incongruent) participants would report higher internal locus of control, certainty of college major choice, perceived congruence, consistency and satisfaction. Congruent individuals indicated higher scores for certainty of choice, perceived congruence and consistency (defined by the point difference between the first two letters of the person-environment codes). No difference between congruent and incongruent individuals in terms of locus of control and satisfaction were found. Spokane and Derby (1979) interpreted these results as suggestive of only a weak and nonsignificant relationship between congruence and a personality pattern indicative of general health and independence. They also suggested that these results indicate a non-significant relationship between satisfaction and congruence. 25

39 Walsh and Hanle (1975) investigated whether congruence (congruent, incongruent, undecided) is associated with vocational maturity and competence, and academic achievement and aptitude. Only female undergraduate students (mainly sophomores and juniors) participated in this study. An individual was defined as congruent if the first two letters of her person-code (measured using the Self-Directed Search) exactly matched the first two letters of the environment code of her occupational choice (both codes had to have the same two letters in the same order). If there was a mismatch between the letters in the person-code and environment-code, an individual was defined as incongruent. Undecided individuals were those who reported themselves as being undecided, or did not report an occupational choice. Walsh and Hanle (1975) used the Career Maturity Inventory (CMI) to measure the degree to which individuals had mature attitudes and competencies related to making realistic career decisions. The American College Test Battery (ACT), was used to measure the potential for college achievement in areas such as Mathematics, English, Natural and Social Science. Walsh and Hanle (1975) hypothesized that congruent, incongruent and undecided individuals would differ in terms of a number of scales on the CMI (e.g., CMI Attitude Scale, three CMI Competence Scales), grade point average, and five ACT scales. Analyses of Variance (ANOVAs) revealed significant differences between groups on the CMI Attitude Scale, and the ACT English Scale. Upon further analyses, Tukey b tests on the significant scales revealed that congruent (v. incongruent and undecided) individuals are more likely to be work-oriented, independent decision-makers, and 26