Human Motivation and Emotion

Transcription

1 Human Motivation and Emotion Dr. Fuschia Sirois Lecture 7 Sept. 28, 2006 Lecture 8 Oct. 3, 2006 Types of Motivation INTRINSIC strive inwardly to be competent and self-determining in their quest to master the task at hand In sport: inner desire & persistence to compete & train to better themselves EXTRINSIC motivation not from within, but from outside the individual can be material (e.g. money) or non-material (e.g. winning, parental pressure), others?

2 Components of Intrinsic Motivation Arises from satisfaction of 3 psychological needs: Autonomy: self-governing Competence: well-qualified, capable a.k.a self-efficacy Relatedness: support and affirmation from peers. Intrinsic Motivation Think of it as where the reinforcement comes from Intrinsic: self-reinforcement Sense of accomplishment and satisfaction from the task itself Emerges from psychological needs, curiosities and growth strivings Intrinsically motivated tasks are accompanied by positive emotions such as interest, enjoyment, curiosity Increase intrinsic motivation by: Challenging tasks that trigger curiosity Autonomy

3 Extrinsic Motivation Extrinsic: external reinforcement Gaining external rewards/incentives and avoiding punishment/consequences Environmentally created reason for an action Intrinsically and Externally motivated behaviours may appear the same Observations alone can t discriminate the source of motivation Extrinsic Motivation Needed when no intrinsic reasons Example: pay taxes Develop intrinsic over time Example: seat belt use. At first extrinsic: avoid tickets, alarms, nagging children Becomes internalized

4 Instrumental Learning Behavior followed by reward increases Pos. Reinforcement: Reward = getting something good Neg. Reinforcement: Reward = getting rid of something bad Behavior followed by punishment decreases Pos. Punishment: getting something bad Neg. Punishment: something good taken away Rewards and punishments Add to Take away from Pleasant Positive reinforcement Type II punishment Unpleasant Type I punishment Negative reinforcement

5 Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation negative relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation is not always undesirable if external rewards are seen as recognition rather than as controlling bribes, then intrinsic motivation may be enhanced rather than reduced Ryan and Deci, p 75 Exposure to commercial media prompt a focus on materialism which provides fleeting satisfactions. May seek extrinsic rewards to compensate for deficits in fulfilling basic psychological needs. Extrinsic rewards are insufficient and poor compensation.

6 Hidden Costs of Motivation Why do extrinsic rewards or constraints reduce intrinsic motivation? Need for autonomy one explanation cognitive explanation - when people are rewarded for a behaviour, they explain their behaviour in terms of external rather than internal factors EX: paying people to perform a task they are already intrinsically motivated for can reduce intrinsic motivation Other factors: expected vs. unexpected rewards tangible vs. verbal rewards Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett, (1973) - Overjustification Effect 20 Percent of Time Spent Playing with Markers Expected Award No Award Unexpected Award

7 Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Needs Goals that meet intrinsic needs (autonomy, relatedness, and competence) are hypothesized to predict SWB goals reflecting extrinsic needs (financial success, social recognition, and physical attractiveness) are hypothesized to be negative predictors of SWB The pursuit of intrinsic goals may also serve to increase the SWB of persons who may be genetically predisposed to NA Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Needs Differences in child-rearing may also lead to stable preferences for intrinsic vs. extrinsic goals having controlling, cold, and uninvolved parents may lead to greater extrinsic needs (Ryan et al.,1996) having autonomy granting, warm, and involved parents lead to greater intrinsic needs Deiner et al. (1997) suggests that an individual's SWB depends on engaging in activities that are congruent with his or her values BUT If an individual values extrinsic goals, then can t that person also experience high SWB?

8 Benefits of Intrinsic Motivation Persistence Creativity High Quality Learning Optimal functioning and Well-being

9 Self-determination Theory Proposes there are 3 distinct types of motivation along a continuum of PLOC Perceived Locus of Causality: 1. Amotivation 2. Extrinsic Motivation 4 types that vary in amount of autonomy 3. Intrinsic Motivation Cognitive Evaluation Theory all external events have both a controlling and informational aspect Propositions: 1. External events affect intrinsic motivation when they influence the PLOC for that behaviour 2. External events affect intrinsic motivation for an optimally challenging event when they influence the perceived competence 3. 3 potential aspects with a functional significance: informational, controlling, amotivating

10 Reasons for Exercising Controlling I must exercise to... lose weight, look good, prevent heart disease, etc Lack of choice/ Pressure Informational Task Mastery Social Affiliation Enjoyment Choice/Competence Self-Determination Self-Determination Intrinsic motivation in SDT In SDT the critical distinction is between controlling regulation of behaviour, where the individual is pressured to act either by externally imposed forces or internally controlling, introjected forces, and autonomous regulations

11 Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation REGULATORY STYLES: Amotivation Extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation External regulation Introjection Identification Integration ASSOCIATED PROCESSES: Perceived noncontingency Low perceived competence Non-relevance Non-intentionality Salience of extrinsic rewards or punishments Compliance/ Reactance Ego involvement Focus on approval from self and others Conscious valuing of activity Selfendorsement of goals Hierarchical synthesis of goals Congruence Interest & Enjoyment Inherent satisfaction Impersonal External Somewhat External From: Ryan & Deci (in press) PERCEIVED LOCUS OF CAUSALITY: Somewhat Internal Internal Internal Organismic Integration Theory movement towards self-determined goals occurs as the perceived locus of causality moves from external to internal; regulation becomes more autonomous Autonomy facilitates internalization and integration of regulation Autonomy related to volition, sense of free will, such that your decisions are your own, under your choice and control - not the same as independence

12 Autonomy is not independence Autonomy relates to the feeling that one is acting in accord with one s sense of self and values One s sense of self and values are largely determined by social influences To the extent that one has assimilated the values of significant others one can still be autonomous The self-determination continuum Degrees of self-determination in behavioural regulation Unmotivated, lacking intention Driven by external pressures Driven by internal pressures Value the outcome Coherent sense of self Interest and enjoyment Amotivation External Introjected Identified Integrated Intrinsic Regulation Regulation Regulation Regulation Regulation Non-Self Determined Increasing Self-Determination

13 Amotivation Amotivation is a state of lacking any intention to engage in a behaviour and is a completely non-selfdetermined form of regulation. Results from not valuing an activity, not feeling competent to engage in it and/or not feeling that it will produce desired outcomes External regulation Behaviour is undertaken in order to satisfy some external demand Typically, pressures imposed by significant others, to attain tangible rewards, or to avoid punishment When regulated in this way, people may be motivated to comply with the external pressure to act but will do so unwillingly, even resentfully, and are unlikely to continue with the activity if the external pressures are relaxed

14 External regulation Alternatively, other-imposed pressure to act may be perceived as a threat to autonomy Individuals may react to this with defiance and by doing just the opposite Examples? Introjected regulation External regulation is taken in but not accepted as one s own Swallowed whole but not digested (Perls, 1973) As if the regulator and the regulatee were separate persons (Ryan et al. 1995) Controls are applied through self-imposed pressures in order to avoid guilt or to maintain self-esteem Internally controlling regulation

15 Introjected regulation Accompanied by a negative emotional tone, tension, and an inner conflict between the self-imposed demands to engage in the behaviour and the failure to value it Thus behaviours regulated by introjection are unlikely to remain stable Examples Identified regulation A conscious acceptance of the behaviour as being important in order to achieve personally valued outcomes The valued outcome provides a strong incentive that can override difficulties in maintaining the behaviour Examples

16 Integrated regulation The assimilation of identified regulation so that engaging in the behaviour is fully congruent with one s sense of self When integrated one experiences a sense of coherence between what one does and who one is Integrated regulation Like intrinsic regulation in that the behaviour is engaged in willingly, with no sense of coercion, and is therefore fully self-determined The behaviour is still engaged in for separable outcomes rather than for the satisfaction inherent in engaging in the activity itself Examples

17 Internally versus externally imposed control In SDT, the central issue in autonomy is the experience of freedom from pressure, regardless of who is imposing the pressure Internally versus externally imposed control "One can be as tyrannical toward oneself as others can be. The issue is not so much whether the source of control is oneself or another, but whether or not one is being controlled" Deci & Ryan (1985)

18 Autonomy Autonomy Support Support Provision of choice Pressure minimised Encouragement to initiate actions Structure Behaviour-outcome relations understood Clear and realistic expectations Positive feedback Involvement Emotional support Genuine interest Empathy Autonomy Competence Relatedness Amotivation External Introjected Identified Integrated Intrinsic Regulation Regulation Regulation Regulation Regulation Increasing Self-Determination