Running head: EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 1

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1 Running head: EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 1 Connected through Empathy: The Relationship between the Dark Triad and Conflict Resolution Styles Student: Renée van Loon ANR student: Supervisor: Jeroen Borghuis Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the bachelor clinical health psychology Department of Developmental Psychology Tilburg University May 2014

2 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 2 Abstract The objective of the present study was to examine the relationship between the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad (psychopathy, Machiavellianism and narcissism) and conflict resolution styles (positive problem solving, conflict engagement, compliance and withdrawal) in a community sample of adolescents. Based on previous studies on empathy in relation to the traits of the Dark Triad and conflict resolution styles, it was hypothesized that all the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad are negatively related to positive problem solving and positively associated with conflict engagement. All variables were measured using self-reports in a questionnaire. Results indicated a negative relationship between psychopathy and positive problem solving and a positive relationship between Machiavellianism and conflict engagement. Both relationships were (partially) mediated by agreeableness. Because agreeableness was used as an indicator of empathy, the present study provides some support for the mediation of these relationships by empathy. Unexpectedly, narcissism was positively associated with positive problem solving. Finally, the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad were not related to compliance and withdrawal. All obtained relationships did not differ between male and female adolescents. Possible explanations for the unexpected results and limitations of the present study are discussed. Keywords: empathy, agreeableness, Dark Triad, psychopathy, Machiavellianism, conflict resolution styles

3 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 3 Connected through Empathy: The Relationship between the Dark Triad and Conflict Resolution Styles According to Larsen and Buss (2010) personality has consequences for the manner in which individuals act, how they view themselves and the world, how they feel and how they react to circumstances. In addition, personality traits influence how individuals interact with others (Larsen & Buss, 2010), for example during conflicts. The present study examines the relationship between the personality traits pertaining to the Dark Trait and the use of conflict resolution styles in a community sample of adolescents. The Dark Triad consists of three traits: narcissism, Machiavellianism and psychopathy (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). Narcissism encompasses a lack of empathy, a sense of entitlement and the tendency to be self-centered, exhibitionistic, self-aggrandizing, interpersonally exploitative and grandiose (Buss & Chiodo, 1991). Individuals who score high on narcissism feel special, attempt to appear better than others, display a need for admiration and are constantly drawing attention to themselves (Jonason, Lyons, Bethell & Ross, 2013; Larsen & Buss, 2010). Although they appear confident, their self-esteem is very vulnerable to criticism, a contrast often called the narcissistic paradox (Larsen & Buss, 2010). The second trait pertaining to the Dark Triad is Machiavellianism, a manipulative strategy of social interaction (Larsen & Buss, 2010). Individuals high on Machiavellianism are manipulative, lack empathy and have a cynical outlook on the world. Other persons are distrusted and used as tools for personal gain. Finally, the Dark Triad includes the trait psychopathy. Individuals who display this personality trait are superficially charming and intelligent. Although individuals high on psychopathy initially come across as normal and pleasant persons with high abilities, they demonstrate irresponsible and unreliable behavior (Cleckly, 1998). Psychopathy is characterized by shallow emotions, self-centeredness, impulsivity, an inability to care for others and an incapacity to display remorse, guilt, shame and anxiety (Cleckly,

4 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES ; Larsen & Buss, 2010). In addition, psychopaths may display antisocial behavior without being in pursuance of certain interests. Although the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad are not equivalent to one another (Paulhus & Williams, 2002), narcissism, Machiavellianism and psychopathy are all associated with low empathy (Jonason et al., 2013; Kalliopuska, 1992; Andrew, Cooke, & Muncer, 2008; Barnett & Thompson, 2001), which is the ability to understand and share the emotional state of another person (de Wied, Branje, & Meeus, 2007). In addition to studying general empathy, efforts have been made to clarify the relationship between the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad and affective components of empathy (e.g. Jonason & Krause, 2013; Wai & Tiliopoulos, 2012). Affective empathy encompasses the ability to experience the emotions of another person (Jonason & Krause, 2013) and has been studied extensively in relation to psychopathy. For example, both boys and girls high on psychopathy show defects in affective empathy, however, this trend was significant for boys only (Jones, Happé, Gilbert, Burnett, & Viding, 2010; Dadds et al., 2009). In addition to childhood, a negative relationship between psychopathy and affective empathy was concluded at various stages of life including adolescence (Brouns et al., 2013; Holmqvist, 2008; Van Vugt et al., 2012), young adulthood (Wai & Tiliopoulos, 2012; Mullins-Nelson, Salekin, & Leistico, 2006) and adulthood (Jonason & Krause, 2013) for both men and women. By contrast, Lishner et al. (2012) did not report similar findings in a study of psychopathy and affective empathy in a sample of young adults. However, because this study only focused on two elements of affective empathy and the sample demonstrated relatively low levels of psychopathy, the results of Lishner et al. (2012) may be considered to be less convincing. Thus, the evidence suggests that psychopathy is negatively related to affective empathy. Machiavellianism and narcissism have been studied less thoroughly in relation to affective empathy compared to psychopathy. Nevertheless, previous research mainly points in the same direction. Even though Loftus and Glenwick

5 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 5 (2001) did not obtain a significant relationship between Machiavellianism and affective empathy, more recent studies involving samples of adolescents, young adults and adults consistently concluded that Machiavellianism was associated with diminished levels of (components of) affective empathy (Wai & Tiliopoulos, 2012; Giammarco & Vernon, in press; Jonason & Krause, 2013). Likewise, whereas Jonason and Krause (2013) did not ascertain a relationship between narcissism and affective empathy, the majority of previous research on this topic did demonstrate a negative correlation between narcissism and affective empathy (Wai and Tiliopoulos, 2012; Giammarco & Vernon, in press; Khodabakhsh & Besharat, 2011). Therefore, previous research suggests that both Machiavellianism and narcissism are negatively related to affective empathy. Taken together, the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad are all associated with low empathy in general (Jonason et al., 2013; Kalliopuska, 1992; Andrew et al., 2008; Barnett & Thompson, 2001), and seem to coincide with defects in affective empathy in particular. The tendency to experience empathy might influence the manner of managing conflict situations. For example, being able to adopt the perspective of another person during a conflict may lead to a better comprehension of the other s position, facilitating constructive resolution and preventing destructive behavior. Using the nomenclature of the Conflict Resolution Style Inventory (CRSI) a clear distinction can be drawn between constructive and destructive styles of resolving interpersonal conflict. The CRSI is comprised of four conflict resolution styles: withdrawal, compliance, conflict engagement and positive problem solving. Withdrawal (i.e. the avoidance of the conflict) is a passive response involving behaviors such as refusing to discuss the problem, ignoring the other party and becoming distant (Misotten, Luyckx, Branje, Vanhalst, & Goossens, 2010; Kurdek, 1994). Secondly, compliance is a passive style which involves not defending the own position and giving in to the other party (de Wied et al., 2007; Kurdek, 1994). Both withdrawal and compliance might be less effective

6 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 6 in resolving the conflict, but the future of a relationship is often not adversely affected by these conflict resolution styles (de Wied et al., 2007). Hence, a relationship between affective empathy and either withdrawal or compliance was not found (de Wied et al., 2007). A rather active and destructive style is conflict engagement, which is concerned with behaviors such as being defensive, losing self-control or launching a verbal attack on the other party (Misotten et al., 2010). In accordance with the previously mentioned reasoning, conflict engagement is negatively correlated with affective empathy (de Wied et al., 2007). In other words, higher levels of affective empathy coincides with less conflict engagement. Positive problem solving, the last conflict resolution style pertaining to the CRSI, is an active response in which the problem is addressed (de Wied et al., 2007). An individual attempts to think of the problem from the viewpoint of the other person and tries to negotiate an agreement (Misotten et al., 2010). Because an attempt is made to resolve the conflict, positive problem solving may be constructive for a relationship. Therefore, affective empathy might be positively related to this conflict resolution style. This is exactly what de Wied et al. (2007) demonstrated in their study: higher levels of affective empathy accompanied higher levels of positive problem solving. Taken together, the results of de Wied et al. (2007) indicate that affective empathy is positively related to constructive resolution and negatively associated with destructive resolution of a conflict. The combination of these results with the research on the relationship between the Dark Triad and affective empathy led to the interest in the current research question: Is there a relationship between the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad and conflict resolution styles and, if so, what is its direction? When narcissism, Machiavellianism and psychopathy are associated with lower levels of affective empathy (Wai & Tiliopoulos, 2012; Jonason & Krause, 2013; Jones et al., 2010; Dadds et al., 2009; Brouns et al., 2013; Holmqvist, 2008; Van Vugt et al., 2012; Mullins-Nelson et al., 2006; Giammarco & Vernon, in press;

7 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 7 Khodabaskhsh & Besharat, 2011) and when lower levels of affective empathy coincide with less positive problem solving and more conflict engagement (de Wied et al., 2007), the Dark Triad may be related to the differentiated use of conflict resolution styles. However, this possibility was never examined. The present study hypothesized that all the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad are negatively related to positive problem solving and positively associated with conflict engagement. In other words: adolescents high on either psychopathy, Machiavellianism or narcissism are expected to report infrequent use of positive problem solving and frequent use of conflict engagement compared to peers low on these traits. Differences in this relationship among the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad are explored. In addition, it is hypothesized that the data would yield no significant relationship between the Dark Triad and either withdrawal or compliance because previous research did not demonstrate a correlation between empathy and these conflict resolution styles (de Wied et al., 2007). To examine whether this reasoning is correct or, in other words, to test whether a relationship between the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad and conflict resolution styles was indeed mediated by empathy, agreeableness was included in the present study as an indicator of empathy. Agreeableness is a broad personality trait pertaining to the five-factor model (Goldberg, 1990) and reflects the degree of prosociality (Nettle, 2007). Agreeable persons could be described as cooperative, helpful, friendly, sympathetic, sincere, warm and understanding (Goldberg, 1990). Persons low on agreeableness on the other hand are argumentative, harsh, unsympathetic, domineering, egocentric, cruel and irritable. Del Barrio, Aluja and García (2004) examined the relationship between agreeableness and empathy in a sample of adolescents and obtained a moderate correlation between these variables. By contrast, Malgalhães, Costa and Costa (2012) obtained a rather weak correlation between agreeableness and empathy in a sample of students. However, because this study specifically

8 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 8 assed physician empathy, the results might not be of importance for the present study. The results of other studies involving samples of young adults and adults indicated large correlations between agreeableness and empathy ranging from.53 to.75 (Graziano, Habashi, Sheese & Tobin, 2007; Lourinho & Severo, 2013; Nettle, 2007). As a consequence of the strength of the correlation between agreeableness and empathy, Nettle (2007) suggested that empathizing is essentially equivalent to the agreeableness dimensions of the five-factor model of personality (p. 251). Therefore, agreeableness is considered to be an adequate indicator of empathy and it is hypothesized that this trait mediates the expected relationships between the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad and both positive problem solving and conflict engagement. Examining the relationship between the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad and conflict resolution styles is important because conflict resolution styles might affect the quality of relationships. For example, frequent use of positive problem solving is associated with high marital or relationship satisfaction, which encompasses the positive appraisal of the very own relationship (Hanzal & Segrin, 2009; Kurdek, 1994). Conflict engagement and withdrawal on the other hand are detrimental to relationship satisfaction. In addition, relationship dissolution (i.e. the termination of the relationship) of couples is predicted by infrequent use of positive problem solving and frequent use of conflict engagement (Kurdek, 1994). When the demonstration of certain conflict resolution styles affects the quality of intimate relationships, perhaps it has an impact on the quality of friendship relationships as well. Therefore, the examination of the determinants of conflict resolution styles in a sample of adolescents is considered to be important. The present study also examines whether male and female adolescents differ from one another in the relationship between the Dark Triad and conflict resolution styles because all variables involved in this research demonstrate gender differences. Firstly, men score higher

9 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 9 on all of the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad compared to women (Jonason & Krause, 2013; Jonason et al., 2013; Paulhus & Williams, 2002). Throughout the lifespan, men are more narcissistic than women (Foster, Campbell, & Twenge, 2003) and male sixth-, seventh- and eighth-graders are rated higher on both Machiavellianism and psychopathy by teachers compared to their female peers (Stellwagen & Kerig, 2013). Secondly, women score consistently higher on measures of general empathy (Jonason et al., 2013) as well as on measures of affective empathy (Jonason & Krause, 2013) than men. This difference was replicated for both children aged 3 to 13 (Dadds et al., 2009; Barnett & Thompson, 2001) and adolescents between the ages of 13 and 16 years (de Wied et al., 2007). Thirdly, men and women differ from one another in the use of conflict resolution styles. Male adolescents report lower positive problem solving, withdrawal and compliance than female adolescents but both sexes scored equal on conflict engagement (de Wied et al., 2007). Because of these differences, gender was included in the present study as a control variable and as an exploratory analysis it was examined whether the relationship between the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad and conflict resolution styles differed between male and female adolescents. In sum, the present study aims to examine the relationship between the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad and conflict resolution styles in a community sample of adolescents. It was hypothesized that all traits pertaining to the Dark Triad are negatively related to positive problem solving and positively associated with conflict engagement. These relationships were expected to be mediated by empathy. To test this last hypothesis, agreeableness was used as an indicator of empathy. Differences between male and female adolescents regarding the relationship between the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad and conflict resolutions styles were examined in an exploratory manner. Method Participants

10 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 10 Data were obtained from a larger research on the personality and friendship relationships of adolescents. Of the 202 respondents, 16 were excluded from the sample because they did not complete all the items of the Dark Triad questionnaire, agreeableness scale or the CRSI. The remaining sample included 186 participants (31.7% male). Their age ranged from 15 to 19 (M = 16.68, SD =.80) and the vast majority (99.5%) was of Belgian origin. Participants were either in the fourth (6.5%), fifth (50.0%) or sixth (43.5%) year of their education and were attending General Secondary Education (71.5%), Technical Secondary Education (10.2%) or Vocational Secondary Education (17.7%) at the time of the testing. Although both General Secondary Education and Technical Secondary Education are preparations for higher education, Technical Secondary Education is less theoretical and more technical and practical than General Secondary Education. Vocational Secondary Education is even more practical and prepares adolescents for the job market. Procedure In 2011 the questionnaire was administered to adolescents at multiple schools in Belgium. To apply for permission, a letter explaining the aim, namely the examination of the personality and relationships of adolescents, and method of the research was sent or given to these schools. After obtaining permission, questionnaires were administered to adolescents during agreed classes or study hours. Adolescents who did not want to participate filled out and signed a passive consent form. By contrast, adolescents who were willing to participate in the research left this form blank. The questionnaire, entitled Feelings and thoughts about yourself and your peers, began with a short explanation of the aim of the research. Participants were assured that data would be treated completely confidential, that their response would remain anonymous and that answers were never correct or incorrect. Participants were asked to be honest, to read questions carefully and to answer all questions in the indicated order. After filling out some questions regarding gender, age, nationality and

11 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 11 other background variables, participants completed several scales and inventories. These originally English scales and inventories were translated into Dutch using the back-translation procedure. This procedure comprises three steps: 1) the translation of the questionnaire from English into Dutch, 2) the translation of the Dutch questionnaire into English, and 3) the comparison of the resulting English version with the original English questionnaire. Measures Dirty Dozen (Jonason & Webster, 2010). The Dirty Dozen is a concise measure of the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad including narcissism (four items), Machiavellianism (four items) and psychopathy (four items). Participants rated their agreement with twelve statements regarding their behavior using a response scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 9 (strongly agree). Examples of these statements are I tend to want others to admire me (i.e. narcissism), I have used deceit or lied to get my way (i.e. Machiavellianism) and I tend to be unconcerned with the morality of my actions (i.e. psychopathy). Corresponding items were averaged together to create indexes of narcissism (Cronbach s α =.83), Machiavellianism (α =.75) and psychopathy (α =.74). Agreeableness scale. To assess agreeableness, a Dutch translation of the Big Five Inventory (BFI; John & Srivastava, 1999) was used. This translation was validated by Denissen, Geenen, van Aken, Gosling and Potter (2008). The agreeableness subscale of the BFI comprises nine items such as Is considerate and kind to almost everyone, Can be cold and aloof (reverse coded) and Is helpful and unselfish with others. Participants indicated for each item to what extent they agreed with the statement in various situations on a fivepoint scale (1= strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree). Contraindicative items were reversed before a mean score was calculated to create an index of agreeableness (α =.74). Conflict Resolution Styles Inventory (CRSI; Kurdek, 1994). To measure the conflict resolution styles of adolescents, a Dutch adaptation of the CRSI was used. This adaptation

12 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 12 contains twenty items (sixteen items similar to the original English CRSI and four additional items) and comprises four different conflict resolution styles including positive problem solving, conflict engagement, compliance and withdrawal. Participants indicated on a fivepoint scale (1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often and 5 = always) how often they used certain strategies such as Sitting down and discussing differences constructively (i.e. positive problem solving), Launching personal attacks (i.e. conflict engagement), Not being willing to stick up for myself (i.e. compliance) and Tuning the other person out (i.e. withdrawal) during conflicts with their best friend. Each conflict resolution style was assessed with five items. Corresponding items were averaged together to create indexes of positive problem solving (α =.81), conflict engagement (α =.74), compliance (α =.80) and withdrawal (α =.73). Design and statistical analysis The present study is a correlational cross-sectional survey research with the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad (i.e. narcissism, Machiavellianism and psychopathy) as independent variables and the four conflict resolution styles (i.e. positive problem solving, conflict engagement, compliance and withdrawal) as dependent variables. In addition, the variables agreeableness and gender were included. Agreeableness is considered to be an indicator of empathy. Because the present study hypothesized that the relationship between the Dark Triad and conflict resolution styles was mediated by empathy, agreeableness was included as a mediator. Finally, gender was included as both a control variable and as a moderator. To determine whether there is a relationship between the traits of the Dark Triad and conflict resolution styles, multiple linear regression analyses were performed. Positive problem solving, conflict engagement, compliance and withdrawal were all regressed on gender, psychopathy, Machiavellianism and narcissism to assess the extent to which the traits

13 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 13 pertaining to the Dark Triad account for the variance in the conflict resolution styles while controlling for gender. Subsequently, the predictors (i.e. gender, psychopathy, Machiavellianism and narcissism) were tested for significance. To examine whether the effect of the Dark Triad on conflict resolution styles was mediated by agreeableness, the procedure proposed by Baron and Kenny (1986) was applied to each combination of the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad and the conflict resolution styles. This procedure entails multiple steps in which both the direct effect of the Dark Triad on conflict resolution styles (step 1) as well as the indirect effect through agreeableness (step 2 and 3) was estimated using several regression analyses. The significance of the indirect effect was tested by performing a Sobel test. This Sobel test was executed by computing test statistics and corresponding p-values using an internet calculator (Preacher & Leonardelli, 2001). Finally, moderation analyses were performed to test whether the effect of the Dark Triad on conflict resolution styles differed between male and female adolescents. The conflict resolution styles were regressed on the traits of the Dark triad, gender and an interaction term of the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad and gender. Subsequently, this interaction term was tested for statistical significance. An alpha level of.05 was used for all statistical tests. Results Descriptive statistics and gender differences In Table 1 descriptive statistics are reported. As might have been expected when examining a community sample of adolescents, participants scored on average significantly beneath the midpoint of the range of possible scores of psychopathy, t(185) = , p <.001, Machiavellianism, t(185) = , p <.001, and narcissism, t(185) = -3.25, p =.001. In addition, participants scored on average rather low on the use of three of the four conflict

14 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 14 resolution styles including conflict engagement, compliance and withdrawal. Finally, positive problem solving and agreeableness both displayed a relatively high mean. Gender differences in the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad, agreeableness and conflict resolution styles are presented in table 2. Men scored significantly higher on both psychopathy, as well as Machiavellianism and narcissism than women. Women on the other hand indicated higher scores on agreeableness than men. Men and women did not differ significantly in the use of the four conflict resolution styles. Bivariate analyses Table 3 shows zero-order correlations between the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad, agreeableness and conflict resolution styles. All the traits of the Dark Triad were positively correlated with each other. Psychopathy and Machiavellianism displayed the strongest relationship. In addition, psychopathy was significantly correlated with three of the four conflict resolution styles: participants high on psychopathy scored generally lower on positive problem solving and higher on conflict engagement and withdrawal. Of the four conflict resolution styles, Machiavellianism demonstrated only a weak positive correlation with conflict engagement. This correlation did not differ significantly from the correlation of psychopathy with conflict engagement, Steiger s z = -.15, p =.881. Finally, narcissism was only significantly correlated with positive problem solving in the opposite direction of the hypothesis: participants high on narcissism did not indicate lower levels of positive problem solving. Instead narcissism yielded a weak positive correlation with positive problem solving. Agreeableness correlated negatively with the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad. Whereas the correlations with psychopathy and Machiavellianism were moderate, the correlation with narcissism was small and only marginally significant. In addition, agreeableness was positively related to positive problem solving and compliance, and negatively related to conflict engagement and withdrawal.

15 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 15 Multivariate analyses Multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to assess the extent to which the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad predict the use of each of the four conflict resolution styles. Preliminary analyses demonstrated that the assumptions of normality, linearity, multicollinearity and homoscedasticity were not violated. Because small to large correlations among the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad were obtained, conflict resolution styles were regressed on psychopathy, Machiavellianism and narcissism simultaneously. Consequently, the traits controlled for each other. In addition to the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad, gender was included in the model as a control variable. However, as Table 4 shows, gender did not predict any of the conflict resolution styles significantly. Firstly, positive problem solving was regressed on gender, psychopathy, Machiavellianism and narcissism. Controlled for gender, the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad accounted for 8% of the variance in positive problem solving, F(4,181) = 3.95, p =.004. Although both psychopathy and Machiavellianism are negative predictors of positive problem solving, only psychopathy is a significant predictor. In addition, and contrary to expectation, narcissism significantly predicted frequent use of positive problem solving. Secondly, the hierarchical regression of conflict engagement revealed that the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in this conflict resolution style while controlling for gender. Together gender, psychopathy, Machiavellianism and narcissism explained 6% of the variance in conflict engagement, F(4,181) = 3.09, p =.017. Although both psychopathy and Machiavellianism were positive predictors of conflict engagement, only Machiavellianism was a significant predictor. Because previously a significant correlation between psychopathy and conflict engagement was obtained, this results is in contrast with the results of the bivariate analyses. Finally, narcissism was not a significant predictor of conflict engagement.

16 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 16 The analysis of the third conflict resolution style, namely compliance, yielded no significant results. Gender and the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad did not explain a significant proportion of the variance in compliance, R 2 =.02, F(4,181) = 0.69, p =.602, and psychopathy, Machiavellianism and narcissism failed to predict compliance significantly. Finally, the analysis of withdrawal also yielded little significance. Gender, psychopathy, Machiavellianism and narcissism failed to explain a significant proportion of the variance in withdrawal, R 2 =.02, F(4,181) = 0.94, p =.442. In addition, psychopathy, Machiavellianism and narcissism did not predict withdrawal significantly. This does not match the results of the bivariate analyses which indicated a significant relationship between psychopathy and withdrawal. Mediation analyses Mediation analyses were performed to test whether the relationship between psychopathy and positive problem solving as well as the relationship between Machiavellianism and conflict engagement was mediated by agreeableness. These analyses were conducted while taking gender as a control variable into account. Firstly, mediation analysis was performed on the negative relationship between psychopathy and positive problem solving (see Figure 1). Step 1 of the mediation analysis revealed that the regression of positive problem solving on psychopathy, ignoring the mediator, was significant, β = -.17, p =.026. Step 2 showed that the regression of agreeableness, the mediator, on psychopathy was significant, β = -.44, p <.001. Step 3 indicated that agreeableness was significantly related to positive problem solving when controlling for psychopathy, β =.29, p <.001. Combining step 2 and 3 resulted in an estimation of the indirect effect which was tested for significance by conducting a Sobel test. The indirect effect of psychopathy on positive problem solving through agreeableness was significant, z = -3.15, p =.002. In addition, the direct effect of psychopathy on positive problem solving was reduced by 76.5% and was no

17 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 17 longer significant, β = -.04, p =.590. Therefore, agreeableness significantly and almost entirely mediated the negative relationship between psychopathy and positive problem solving. The positive relationship between Machiavellianism and conflict engagement was examined using the same steps (see Figure 2). Step 1 of the mediation analyses showed that the regression of conflict engagement on Machiavellianism, ignoring the mediator, was significant, β =.24, p =.001. Step 2 revealed that the regression of agreeableness on Machiavellianism was significant, β = -.30, p <.001. Step 3 indicated that agreeableness was significantly related to conflict engagement when controlling for Machiavellianism, β = -.25, p =.001. The indirect effect of Machiavellianism on conflict engagement through agreeableness was significant, z = 2.61, p =.009. However, although the direct effect of Machiavellianism on conflict engagement was reduced by 29.2%, it remained significant, β =.17, p =.030. Therefore, agreeableness partially mediated the positive relationship between Machiavellianism and conflict engagement. As an exploratory analysis, a mediation analysis was performed on the unexpected positive relationship between narcissism and positive problem solving (see Figure 3). The regression of positive problem solving on narcissism, ignoring the mediator, was significant, β =.18, p =.018. However, this direct effect was not reduced when controlling for agreeableness. Instead the direct effect of narcissism on positive problem solving was slightly increased, β =.20, p =.004. This increase was caused by the slightly negative but statistically non-significant indirect effect through agreeableness, z = -1.09, p =.275. Therefore, the positive relationship between narcissism and positive problem solving was not mediated by agreeableness. Moderation analyses

18 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 18 As an exploratory analysis it was examined whether the relationships between the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad and conflict resolution styles differed between male and female adolescents. First, positive problem solving was regressed on psychopathy, gender and an interaction of psychopathy and gender in order to test whether gender moderated the negative relationship between psychopathy and positive problem solving. The interaction term was not significant, β =.019, p =.916. Therefore, the relationship between psychopathy and positive problem solving was not moderated by gender. Secondly, to examine whether gender moderated the positive relationship between Machiavellianism and conflict engagement, conflict engagement was regressed on Machiavellianism and gender. In addition, an interaction term of Machiavellianism and gender was included in the equation. This interaction term was not significant, β =.08, p =.686. Therefore, the relationship between Machiavellianism and conflict engagement was not moderated by gender. Third, a moderation-analysis was performed on the positive relationship between narcissism and positive problem solving. To test moderation, positive problem solving was regressed on narcissism, gender and an interaction term of narcissism and gender. Because this interaction term did not reach significance, β =.31, p =.219, the relationship between narcissism and positive problem solving was not moderated by gender. Finally, moderation analyses were conducted for each remaining combination of psychopathy, Machiavellianism and narcissism with positive problem solving, conflict engagement, compliance and withdrawal. Although narcissism and withdrawal, for example, did not yield a significant relationship, it is possible that there is a relationship which differs between male and female adolescents. As a consequence the total effect could approximate to zero. Therefore, nine moderation analyses were conducted in which a conflict resolution style was regressed on a trait of the Dark Triad, gender and a interaction of the trait with gender. However, these analyses yielded no

19 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 19 significance. For instance, withdrawal was regressed on narcissism, gender and an interaction of narcissism and gender. This interaction did not reach significance, β =.06, p =.827. Discussion The objective of the present study was to examine the relationship between the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad and conflict resolution styles in a community sample of adolescents. The present study hypothesized that all the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad are negatively related to positive problem solving and positively associated with conflict engagement. In accordance with the first hypothesis, psychopathy was negatively related to positive problem solving. This relationship was almost entirely mediated by agreeableness, an indicator of empathy. Resembling previous research on (affective) empathy, psychopathy was associated with low levels of agreeableness (e.g. Jonason et al., 2013; Brouns et al., 2013) and low agreeableness, in turn, coincided with less positive problem solving (de Wied et al., 2007) resulting in a negative relationship between psychopathy an positive problem solving. In accordance with the second hypothesis, current findings indicated a positive relationship between Machiavellianism and conflict engagement, and supported the hypothesized mediation of this relationship by empathy. In agreement with previous studies on (affective) empathy, Machiavellianism was related to low levels of agreeableness (e.g. Jonason et al., 2013; Andrew et al., 2008; Wai & Tiliopoulos, 2012) and low agreeableness subsequently coincided with infrequent use of conflict engagement (de Wied et al., 2007). However, because the mediation of agreeableness was partial, this sequence only partially explains the positive association of Machiavellianism with conflict engagement. The results on narcissism in relation to positive problem solving and conflict engagement were rather unexpected. Instead of obtaining a negative relationship between narcissism and positive problem solving as hypothesized, the results indicated a positive association between these variables. This unexpected relationship, which was not mediated by

20 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 20 agreeableness (i.e. empathy), could be explained by the self-enhancement narcissist typically engage in. Individuals high on narcissism augment self-reports of positive traits (Horvath & Morf, 2010). Because Tezer (1999) demonstrated that students rather want to become friends with persons who try to negotiate a mutually agreeable solution (i.e. positive problem solving; de Wied et al., 2007) than with persons who defend their own position until the other party gives in, positive problem solving might be classified as such a positive trait upon which narcissists self-enhance. As a consequence of this self-enhancement, adolescents high on narcissism might have indicated higher levels of positive problem solving. In other words, the self-reports of adolescents who score high on narcissism might have been biased which subsequently resulted in the positive relationship between narcissism and positive problem solving. A similar explanation might account for the non-significant negative relationship between narcissism and conflict engagement. Individuals high on narcissism also reduce selfratings of negative traits (Horvath & Morf, 2010). Because defending the own position until the other party gives in during conflicts is valued less in potential friends than other conflict resolution behaviors such as negotiating an agreement or to decide on a compromise (Tezer, 1999), frequently displaying conflict engagement could be considered as an undesirable and negative trait. However, the relationship between narcissism and discounting self-ratings of negative traits is fully attributable to self-esteem (Horvath & Morf, 2010). Therefore, only narcissist with high self-esteem (i.e. grandiose narcissists; Bosson, 2008) might engage in discounting self-ratings of negative traits, though narcissist with low self-esteem (i.e. vulnerable narcissists; Bosson, 2008) will not display this behavior. Perhaps the current sample consisted predominantly of individuals who displayed grandiose narcissism and discounted their self-reports on conflict engagement. This might have resulted in a low mean of conflict engagement for individuals who displayed narcissism and thus in the nonsignificant relationship between narcissism and conflict engagement. To determine whether

21 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 21 adolescents high on narcissism actually engage in more positive problem solving and less conflict engagement than adolescents low on narcissism and to overcome the possibility of biased self-reports, future research should incorporate reports of parents and teachers in addition to self-reports. In addition to obtaining unexpected results on narcissism, the present study did not demonstrate some of the hypothesized relationships including the relationship between Machiavellianism and positive problem solving as well as the relationship between psychopathy and conflict engagement. Although a significant correlation between psychopathy and conflict engagement was obtained, the multivariate analyses, in which the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad controlled for each other, did not confirm the existence of a relationship between these variables. However, the failure of the present study to obtain a significant relationship between Machiavellianism and positive problem solving, and between psychopathy and conflict engagement could be a consequence of the composition of the current sample. Because data was collected from a community sample of adolescents, the mean scores of the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad were rather low. The inclusion of a clinical sample of adolescents could have resulted in obtaining higher scores on psychopathy and Machiavellianism and, consequently, in an increase of the variation. This method of combining a clinical sample with a community sample of adolescents will therefore presumably result in more power to detect a relationship than the current method in which only a community sample of adolescents was included. Hence, future research on the Dark Triad in relation to conflict resolution styles should include a clinical sample in addition to a community sample of adolescents. The traits pertaining to the Dark Triad were, as expected, not significantly related to compliance. In addition, Machiavellianism and narcissism were not significantly associated with withdrawal. Although a significant zero-order correlation between psychopathy and

22 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 22 withdrawal was obtained, the multivariate analyses did not confirm the existence of a relationship between these variables. Therefore, it is concluded that the traits of the Dark Triad are unrelated to compliance and withdrawal. However, just as concluding that there is no relationship between Machiavellianism and positive problem solving, and between psychopathy and conflict engagement could be a Type II error as a consequence of the composition of the sample, concluding that the traits of the Dark Triad are unrelated to compliance and withdrawal could be a Type II error as well. Therefore, to be more confident about these conclusions, the present study should be repeated in a combination of a community and a clinical sample. The present study also explored gender differences regarding the relationship between the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad and conflict resolution styles. Previous research found that men score higher on all of the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad compared to women (Jonason & Krause, 2013; Jonason et al., 2013; Paulhus & Williams, 2002; Foster et al., 2003; Stellwagen & Kerig, 2013) and that women score higher than man on general and affective empathy (Jonason et al., 2013; Jonason & Krause, 2013; Dadds et al., 2009; Barnett & Thompson, 2001; de Wied et al., 2007). The present study replicated these differences: male adolescents reported higher levels of psychopathy, Machiavellianism and narcissism than female adolescents, and female adolescent indicated higher levels of agreeableness, an indicator of empathy, than male adolescents. However, although previous research found that women report lower use of positive problem solving, compliance and withdrawal (de Wied et al., 2007), the present study did not replicate this finding. As a control variable, gender did not significantly affect the relationships between the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad and conflict resolution styles. In addition, these relationships did not differ between female and male adolescents.

23 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 23 Although more research on the Dark Triad in relation to conflict resolution styles is needed, the current findings suggest the following answer on the current research question Is there a relationship between the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad and conflict resolution styles and, if so, what is its direction? : Not all traits pertaining to the Dark Triad are related to all conflict resolution styles. Psychopathy yields a negative relationship with positive problem solving and, unexpectedly, narcissism demonstrates a positive relationship with this conflict resolution style. Machiavellianism is the only trait pertaining to the Dark Triad that is related to conflict engagement and predicts this conflict resolution style in the positive direction. Finally, the traits of the Dark Triad are not associated with compliance and withdrawal. The present study provided some support for the mediation of the relationship between psychopathy and positive problem solving by empathy, and for the partial mediation of the relationship between Machiavellianism and conflict engagement by empathy. Lastly, the relationships between the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad and conflict resolution styles did not differ between male and female adolescents. The results of the present study could indicate adverse implications for adolescents high on psychopathy and Machiavellianism. As mentioned, Tezer (1999) demonstrated that students rather want to become friends with individuals who display the behaviors associated with positive problem solving than with persons who engage in behaviors associated with conflict engagement. In accordance with these findings, adolescents who frequently engaged in constructive conflict resolution are more popular than adolescents who infrequently demonstrated constructive conflict resolution (Butovskaya, Timentschik, & Burkova, 2007). These findings in combination with the results of the present study suggest that adolescents high on psychopathy and Machiavellianism have less friends than adolescents low on these traits because they engage less frequent in positive problem solving and more frequent in conflict engagement respectively. Furthermore, infrequent use of positive problem solving

24 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 24 and frequent use of conflict engagement predicts relationship dissolution in couples. If these findings also apply to friendship relationships of adolescents, adolescents high on psychopathy and Machiavellianism are at risk for social rejection. The findings of the present study, however, suggest that adolescents high on narcissism have an advantage: because they score high on positive problem solving, they might be more popular than adolescents low on narcissism. Caution should be taken in generalizing the findings of the present study. Participants evaluated the extent to which they utilized the four conflict resolution styles only in the context of conflicts with friends. Therefore, the current findings cannot be generalized to conflicts with parents, family, teachers, etcetera. In addition, the fact that data was collected from adolescents restricts the generalizability. The manner in which adolescents solve conflicts with friends may differ from the manner in which adults settle a conflict. As a consequence, the relationships obtained by the present study might not be typical for adults. Other limitations of the present study include the use of self-reports to assess the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad, agreeableness and conflict resolution styles. As a consequence of social desirability these self-reports could have been biased. In addition, caution should be taken in interpreting the current findings in terms of causality, because the present study is a correlational research. Finally, the present study did not include an actual measure of empathy but used agreeableness as an indicator instead. Although previous research on the relation between empathy and agreeableness suggested that agreeableness is an adequate indicator of agreeableness (Del Barrio et al., 2004; Graziano et al., 2007; Lourinho & Severo, 2013; Nettle, 2007), future research, which should include an actual measure of empathy, is needed to verify whether it is empathy indeed that mediates the relationship between psychopathy and positive problem solving as well as the relationship between Machiavellianism and conflict engagement. Furthermore, because previous research suggests that the obtained relationships

25 EMPATHY, THE DARK TRIAD, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STYLES 25 between the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad and conflict resolutions styles are mediated by the affective components of empathy (Wai & Tiliopoulos, 2012; Jonason & Krause, 2013; Jones et al., 2010; Dadds et al., 2009; Brouns et al., 2013; Holmqvist, 2008; Van Vugt et al., 2012; Mullins-Nelson et al., 2006; Giammarco & Vernon, in press; Khodabaskhsh & Besharat, 2011; de Wied et al., 2007), future research should also incorporate a measure of affective empathy. A strength of the current study is that the conflict resolution styles were each regressed on psychopathy, Machiavellianism and narcissism simultaneously. Therefore, the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad controlled for each other. This is important because the psychopathy, Machiavellianism and narcissism demonstrated weak to strong correlations. As a consequence, the bivariate analyses yielded some relationships that were not confirmed by the multivariate analyses. Furthermore, the inclusion of agreeableness enabled a (preliminary) test of empathy. Finally, notwithstanding the limitations, the present study is the first to demonstrate some relationships between the traits pertaining to the Dark Triad and conflict resolution styles and provides support for mediation of these relationships by empathy.