The Humanistic Approach. Personality. The Humanistic Approach. Carl Rogers: Self Theory. Carl Rogers: Self Theory. Carl Rogers: Self Theory 4/21/2008

Transcription

1 Personality Part 2 The Humanistic Approach Humanism has a long tradition in Western thought, beginning with the ancient Greeks. Despite varying theoretical positions, humanistic theorists all emphasize the individual s potential for growth and change. The Humanistic Approach Consequently, in contrast to psychodynamic approaches, humanistic approaches emphasize non-determinism and the role of conscious experiences and understanding personality. Carl Rogers: Self Theory Rogers pioneered the Person-Centered Approach to personality. His approach is often called Self Theory, because one's subjective perception of the self is the focal point for it, whether this view is accurate or not, or shared by others. Starting in infancy, one starts to build a self concept, or an image of oneself. Carl Rogers: Self Theory Each person also develops an ideal self, or what one would like to be. According to Rogers, the closer the actual self-concept is to the ideal self, the better adjusted that person is. Like Maslow, Rogers also endorsed the notion that people strive for selfactualization or reaching one's ideal self. Carl Rogers: Self Theory However, success of self-actualization eludes most, but those who approach or reach it evidence five characteristics: 1. the ability to grow and evolve constantly, 2. believe new experiences foster learning, 3. trust themselves and make their own decisions, 1

2 Carl Rogers: Self Theory 4. live harmoniously with others yet realize that they will not be liked by everyone, and 5. live in and focused on the present rather than the past or the future. Abraham Maslow: Holistic- Dynamic Theory The highest level in Maslow's hierarchy of needs is self-actualization, or the ability to use all of one's potential and be the best that he or she can be. In defining self-actualization and in identifying people who were near selfactualization, Maslow's description of selfactualized people turned out to be very similar to that of Rogers. Abraham Maslow: Holistic- Dynamic Theory To Maslow, self-actualized individuals are free of mental illness and know their own self-worth and value. They accept themselves and others unconditionally, recognize genuineness versus falseness in others, and accurately interpret reality. Abraham Maslow: Holistic- Dynamic Theory They tend to be ethical, problem-centered, and maintain their values and beliefs despite others' reactions to them. They are comfortable being by themselves and enjoy life. Abraham Maslow: Holistic- Dynamic Theory Obviously, Maslow's description of selfactualization is a tall order to fill. Consequently, it probably represents more an ideal state to strive for than one that is actually attained in full by most people. It certainly represents a goal worthy of everyone's attention. Abraham Maslow Maslow was one of the most influential of humanistic personality theorists. His early history would not have predicted that, because Maslow was influenced by Watson, trained by Harlow, and a colleague of Thorndike's. 2

3 Abraham Maslow The birth of Maslow's first child radically turned him away from these behaviors theories. He began to frequent Adler s weekly home seminars, which Karen Horney also attended. The intimate contact with such highpowered thinkers led him to formulate his notions of self-actualization. Abraham Maslow He created with Rogers and others a "third force" in psychology, humanistic psychology. As Maslow saw it, the humanistic psychologist: has no use for animal research believes that subjective reality is the key to personality promotes the study of individuals, not groups Abraham Maslow discovers things that enrich human problems conducts applied research to alleviate human problems believes that a complete description of humans requires more than science Abraham Maslow In addition, Maslow's hierarchy of needs served as a blueprint for research. Higher order needs are of more interest than the lower order ones. Rare self-actualized people represent an even richer research potential. Maslow and Rogers created the humanistic approach almost entirely by themselves. Evaluating Humanistic Approach When evaluating humanistic approach, several problems are noted. It lacks empirical research to support it due to its difficulty in being tested, and it lacks comprehensiveness in explaining personality and its development. Evaluating Humanistic Approach While it has been and continues to be used in therapy, its usefulness in assessment is limited due to its focus on the client's perspective rather than the practitioner s. Despite these problems, issues of selfactualization and human potential continue to be of interest, and they serve to broaden psychology's conception of itself. 3

4 The Cognitive-Behavioral Approach Cognitive-behavioral paradigms, naturally enough, focus on thinking and the interaction of thinking and behavior. Antecedents Behavioral approaches, in general, look to explain behavior and personality as a result of environmental contingencies. Skinner, for example, believed that personality is merely the result of varying reinforcement patterns and environmental contingencies. To him there is no point in creating a hypothetical internal world to describe personality. Antecedents Maladjusted individuals, Skinner maintained, are the result of reinforcement of antisocial behaviors or of the punishment of pro-social behaviors. In contrast, the cognitive psychologist looks at the processes of the mind. Taken together then, cognitive-behavioral explanations focus on the connections between behavior and the mind. Learning And Social Learning Theories As Freudian concepts became well-known, attempts to translate those concepts into the language g of learning theory materialized. For example, the role of verbal cues in psychoanalytic sessions were analyzed. It was found that patients were often subtly shaped into discussing psychoanalytical concepts by their therapists. Learning And Social Learning Theories By and large, however, such attempts to convert psychoanalytic concepts to testable constructs for learning theory were failures. But those efforts did lead the way for theories of personality based on learning principles. Learning And Social Learning Theories Perhaps the most influential of these theories was Bandura's Social Learning Theory. He demonstrated that most human learning is observational, and that reinforcers serve more to determine the overt expression of learning, rather than the learning itself. 4

5 Learning And Social Learning Theories In one study, for example, children were observed on how they would respond after being left alone. Prior to the adults in the study leaving, they modeled a set of behaviors. In one such set, the adult played with the children constructively and quietly; and another such set, the adult was boisterous and loud. Learning And Social Learning Theories Children, when left alone modeled the adult closely, meaning that the adults behavior predicted the children's behavior well. Learning And Social Learning Theories Learning and social-learning theories have produced a view of personality as a construct that is mostly under the control of social-developmental factors. These theories have had an important effect on government policy, most notably the establishment of the Head Start program. Julian Rotter: Social-learning Theory Rotter is behaviorally oriented, but because he adds perceived meaning to stimuli and reinforcers, he is classified as a cognitive- behavioral theorist. For Rotter, it is important not only to look at how environmental stimuli affect behavior, but also to focus on the individual's perception or interpretation of those events. Julian Rotter: Social-learning Theory The concepts developed by Rotter that have received the most attention are internal and external locus of control. Internal people believe that their behavior and the consequences of their behavior are strongly linked. In contrast, external people see the consequences of their behavior as due to other, external causes. Julian Rotter: Social-learning Theory So, internals are more likely to attribute success or failure to themselves whereas externals are more likely to attribute success or failure to other people or things (e.g., luck or faith). 5

6 Julian Rotter: Social-learning Theory Internal students, for example, would attribute their grades in a course to studying or lack of study. In contrast, external students are more likely to attribute their grades to luck, to brownnosing the professor, or to the idea that the teacher doesn't like them or asked tricky questions. Albert Bandura: Social- Cognitive Theory Bandura's theory is concerned with the interface of thought and action. He speaks of reciprocal determinism, the interaction of behavior, personal variables, and environment, in his model of personality. Albert Bandura: Social- Cognitive Theory Personal variables include motivation and ability. Environmental events include family structure and support, income, and many others. Behavior, then, will be the result of personal variables and environment working together. In turn, behavior will alter personal variables and environment to create new possibilities. Albert Bandura: Social- Cognitive Theory Consequently, the person, the environment, and behavior are mutually influential on the one another. Self-efficacy is one of Bandura's more important personal variables. It is the belief in one's own incompetence; depending on its direction, it will either worsen or improve one's likelihood of success. Evaluating Cognitive- Behavioral Theories Achieving behavioral change is one of the key successes of cognitive-behavioral theory, probably due to its emphasis on conscious behaviors. Consequently, it has generated much more research than the psychodynamic or humanistic approaches as it is more testable. Evaluating Cognitive- Behavioral Theories However, cognitive-behavioral theory s emphasis on interaction has made it difficult for it to specify dimensions or the structure of personality, making it less comprehensive than other approaches. 6

7 Evaluating Cognitive- Behavioral Theories Despite these limitations it has been somewhat useful in assessment techniques, has generated effective forms of psychotherapy, and has greatly influence the growth of health psychology. The Trait-Based Approach Traits are consistent behaviors that characterize individuals. Trait theories attempt to describe personality by a series of descriptive statements. The Trait-Based Approach If asked to describe a particular individual's personality we usually end up listing the number of traits, saying, for example, that the person is honest, outgoing, but overly suspicious. Scientific trait theories end up with a similar kind of description. The Trait-Based Approach Two types of trait theories exist. One type maintains that people are each composed of different sets of traits. For example, Gordon Allport believed that personality is made up of personal dispositions, common traits, central traits, secondary traits, and, in some cases, cardinal traits. The Trait-Based Approach The majority of the personality consists of personal dispositions, which are largely unique to the individual. Allport allowed for common traits, which are similar across individuals, but he did not attribute them much power in the structure of one's uniqueness or personality. The Trait-Based Approach Most individuals have a small set (5-10) of central traits that can describe them easily and are evident in most of their behavior. A few people possess a cardinal trait that so dominates their personality, it colors everything about the person. People also possess secondary traits, or traits that bear on their behavior slightly. 7

8 The Trait-Based Approach Other trade theorists suggest that people differ only in the degree to which they manifest a universal set of traits. These theories run the gamut from allencompassing descriptions of personality traits to those that deal with only one trait. Hans Eysenck: Three Dimensions Of Personality Eysenck s trait theory is supported by extensive research, a reason for its wide acceptance and psychological circles. Eysenck s theory provides for only three traits or scales: extroversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Eysenck suggests that people vary in the degree of these traits along a continuum. Extroversion indicates one's level of sociability from high levels (extroverts) to low levels (introvert). Neuroticism indicates one's level of emotional stability. Psychoticism represents one's attachment to others as expressed in caring, empathy, and loving feelings. The Big Five Personality Traits The Big Five trait theory, or five-factor theory, of personality, first proposed by Norman, is one of the more widely accepted trait theories. Its large acceptance is predominantly due to its identification of five traits that more frequently are generated from factor analytic studies as well as more commonly mentioned across other trait theories. The Big Five Personality Traits The five traits are neuroticism, extroversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Neuroticism in this theory is similar to that of Eysenck s, representing emotional instability. Similarly, extroversion indicates one's level of sociability. The Big Five Personality Traits Openness is characterized by imagination and curiosity, while agreeableness includes friendliness and empathy towards others. Conscientiousness is characterized by reliability, hard work, and an ethical nature. Developmental research and cross-cultural research support the universality of these five traits as well is their apparent life-long continuity. 8

9 The Big Five Personality Traits Openness, agreeableness, and extroversion appear to be related to personal adjustment. Not all research agrees with five factor theory, and there may be more than five personality traits. However, the big five is currently the most widely accepted trait theory. Trait Theories Eysenck regards personality as being primarily an inborn phenomenon. To him, personality is more like eye color or height than it is a learned phenomena. Notice how the study of personality reflects the naturenurture problem. Trait Theories Eysenck s theory leans toward the nature end of the continuum while learning and social-learning theories are closer to the nurture end. Norman s Big Five personality traits are similar to Eysenck s. Norman's theory, however, may serve as a bridge between biological and learned theories. Evaluating Trait Theories Walter Mischel generated a flurry of responses when he offered a public attack on trait theories in his Personality and Assessment. In an effort to assess the predictive power of traits on behavior, Mischel had correlated different personality traits with behavior and found low correlations between stable traits and behavior (around 0.30). Evaluating Trait Theories Consequently, he questioned the validity of measuring traits or focusing on traits at all. Instead, he believed that situations in behavior should be more of the focus in personality research. In response to Mischel's critique, several arguments were put forth. One line of reasoning showed the correlations in that range can be fairly predictive. Evaluating Trait Theories Another response argued that Mischel's suggestion, correlating situations and behaviors, rarely yyielded correlations higher than 0.30 either. Consequently, maybe it is not trait theory that lacks predictive validity, but rather people s behavior. 9

10 Evaluating Trait Theories Mischel's criticisms resulted in a renewed look at the trait approach. As a result, new trait theories have been more successful in predicting behavior. We may not be able to predict all of one's behavior all the time, but it may be possible to predict some behavior some of the time. Evaluating Trait Theories Despite Mischel's critique, the trait approach is comprehensive, easily tested, and has been extremely influential in personality assessment. The Biological Approach Trait theorists disagree as to the consistency of traits across the lifespan. Some, who hold the traits are more inborn, endorse the stability of traits throughout development. Others, who see more of an influence of the environment, suggest the traits are more susceptible to change. The Biological Approach Consequently, research has attempted to investigate the role biology plays in our personality development. Personality, Temperament, And Heritability Research supports the contribution of both nature and nurture to personality traits. For example, twin studies suggest that at least half of the variation in personality traits and intelligence is inherited. However, heritability may vary as a function of the particular trait, the population studied, or with age. Personality, Temperament, And Heritability Certain aspects of attitudes such as watching television or divorce show an inherited component. However, it is not the behavior of watching television or divorce per se that is inherited, but rather the personal characteristics such as the predisposition to conflict that may lead to such behavior. 10

11 Personality, Temperament, And Heritability Research on temperament also suggests the role of heredity. This environmental influence on traits seems to control more of the variation within families, rather than between families, demonstrating that we have much to learn about the causes of these differences. Biological Correlates Of Disposition And Temperament Other research searches for direct biological causes of personality. For example, hyperactivity in childhood has been linked to a specific gene. Similarly, being inhibited has been linked to greater activation of the prefrontal cortex in the left hemisphere. Biological Correlates Of Disposition And Temperament There have been attempts to link the biological approach to personality and trait theory. Some researchers suggest that the Big Five theory represents evolutionary adaptations. This interpretation is speculative since trait theories deal mostly with individual differences, while evolutionary theory deals mainly with human commonalities. Evaluating The Biological Approach One advantage of the biological approach is that it relates personality directly to the brain. However, it does not answer all questions regarding personality. For example, it has not helped identify what personality traits are. Evaluating The Biological Approach The biological approach also seems to be stronger for specific findings than on an overarching theoretical framework. It works best when tied to another theoretical approach. Interactionist Perspectives Interactionists emphasize the importance of looking at the interaction between one's dispositions (traits) and the environment (situations). From the interactionist approach, correlations between traits, or between traits and behavior, will depend on the environment people are currently in. 11

12 Interactionist Perspectives Extroverts may be happy at a party, but sad if alone. Another example is selfmonitoring. High self-monitors react differently depending on whom they are with, but low self-monitors act the same in nearly all situations. Interactionist Perspectives Thrill seeking behavior may also be explained by this approach. Levels of sensation seeking could explain people s preference for risky activities and behaviors such as skydiving or amount of drug use. Measuring Personality Because not all researchers view personality in the same way, several different approaches for measuring personality have been developed. Projective Tests Projective tests, stemming from the psychodynamic approach, were designed to make subjects reveal the workings of their unconscious minds. Two examples of this type of test include the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). The Rorschach Inkblot Test This test consists of 10 inkblots-half of which are in color and half of which are black, white, and gray-that show ambiguous stimuli. Subjects are asked to say what the inkblots look like to them. Subjects are asked to describe all of the possible things they perceive a particular inkblot to be. The Rorschach Inkblot Test Responses are then analyzed according to a prescribed method. The most commonly used scoring system, Exner s (1985), looks at location, determinants, content, and popularity of responses. It is believed that individual s responses reveal aspects of their personality, particularly their needs, conflicts, and desires. 12

13 The Thematic Apperception Test The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), created by Murray (1943), presents a set of ambiguous pictures depicting gpeople p in social situations. The subjects are asked to tell a story about the people in the picture: who are they, how did they get there, what are they doing, what is going to happen? The Thematic Apperception Test Suppose, for example, the subject is shown a picture of two women walking down a country road at sunset toward a small house in the background. If the subject says that they live in the house, are mother and daughter, they just had dinner, and are enjoying a quiet evening s walk, he or she has given a normal response. The Thematic Apperception Test But if the subject states that the women's car broke down, that they're walking to the house for help, and that they will be harmed before they get there, then that story might prove useful in further questioning of the subject. It is believed that subjects project or engage in apperception by making up and telling their stories. The Thematic Apperception Test Murray (1943) suggests that examiners consider six elements when scoring subject responses: the hero in the story, the hero's motives, the forces acting on the hero, the outcomes of the story, the types of environmental stimuli affecting others, and the interests and sentiments appearing in the story. The Thematic Apperception Test The TAT also has been used to assess achievement motivation and power motivation. Others have used it to assess a person s use of defense mechanisms. The Thematic Apperception Test The range of acceptance by clinicians and others for psychodynamic tests is wide. Some clinicians believe that they are less than worthless and that interpretations are based upon the clinician s biases, not the responses of the subject. Others see these tests as very useful. 13

14 The Thematic Apperception Test Because empirical evidence supporting the validity of these tests is weak, some researchers and clinicians prefer a more objective means of assessing personality rather than one that relies on subjective scoring. Objective Personality Tests A standardized uniform procedure for scoring is used in objective personality tests. Two examples of this type of tests include the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) and the NEO Personality Inventory Revised (NEO-PI-R). Objective Personality Tests The NEO-PI-R is a 240-item, self-report instrument that measures the five factors of the Big Five Theory. The MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) is a 550-item, truefalse standardized questionnaire, influenced by several theoretical approaches including the trait and psychodynamic perspectives. Objective Personality Tests It originally was designed as a method for revealing psychopathology or abnormality in personality. Respondents answers to the true-false questions are scored along 14 scales or clusters of behavior: 4 validity scales and 10 clinical scales. Objective Personality Tests The validity scales attempt to measure the degree to which individuals responses are consistent across similar questions and individual tendencies to try to "look good" or desirable. The 10 clinical scales measure forms of abnormal behavior when compared with the standardization sample from which the test was derived. Objective Personality Tests These results then can be graphed, creating a personality profile of a person. The MMPI has both strengths and weaknesses. Its strengths lie in its validity scale, it's objective scoring procedure, its comprehensiveness of abnormal behavior, and the wealth of research data that it is generated in its wide use. 14

15 Objective Personality Tests However, the strengths are tempered by several drawbacks. It's forced-choice choice format of true or false answers makes interpretation by the respondent and the scorer difficult. A second problem is the question of whether what people report is actually related to what they do. Objective Personality Tests The MMPI-2 version attempts to deal with these issues. The MMPI also requires adjustments when given to ethnic minorities as they were exceedingly underrepresented in the standardization sample. Objective Personality Tests Similarly, problems arise when giving the MMPI to other cross-cultural groups, namely, adequately translating the questions and the lack of familiarity with test-taking procedures, which may make other cultures approach the task or interpret the questions differently. Practical Applications Of Objective Tests Several objective tests have been designed for use in the field rather than just in a clinician s office. Especially since the tragedy of September 11, 2001, the skyjack or terrorist profile is a secret trait approach used at airports to catch potential skyjackers before they board a plane. Self-Help Tests Self-help tests can be found in any bookstore, or in any of the hundreds of selfhelp magazines available in stores. These tests are designed to test a wide variety of personality traits, so you should be skeptical of both the test and the results they produce. Self-Help Tests These tests are not standardized and have not been shown to produce reliable or valid results. Their main purpose p is to sell books and magazines, not to accurately assess personality. 15

16 Living with people is probably the best way to determine their personality, as many college roommates have found out. Unfortunately, living with someone, as a method of personality assessment, takes too long and is fraught with ethical implications. So, how do psychologists measure personality in a reasonable time and without ethical violations? One of the basic problems in any type of personality assessment is the discrepancy between self-report and actual behavior. This problem may occur without subjects realizing it, and it highlights the fact that we are often unaware of the biases we possess about ourselves. We are often struck by the discrepancy in how others view us compared to how we see ourselves. The problem self-report and actual behavior also may be created intentionally. Often, we take pains to present a certain image to the rest of the world, and that image may not reflect our actual personality or behavior. Dating, for instance, has been criticized because people tend to try to project an image, g, rather than their true selves, while dating. Job interviews are another instance when what the person is projecting may not be a true reflection of the individual. Criminals and mental patients also may have good reason to cover up their true natures and intentions in order to be discharged from prison or therapy, respectively. At first glance, an interview may not seem like a very sophisticated method for determining personality. However, a skilled interviewer may be able to determine and infer much from a short interview. Interviews come in two basic types. The structured interview treats all interviewees as similarly as possible in order to assess differences among them. 16

17 Employment interviews or college admission interviews may be seen as structured interviews. Unstructured interviews are less rigid by definition. An interviewer conducting such interviews may allow each interview to follow its own unique path. Interviewees may be encouraged to pursue topics they have brought up. In the hands of practiced interviewers, unstructured interviews allow deeper penetration into the personality than do structured interviews. All serious decisions concerning therapy, admission to mental health inpatient therapy, or other such situations nearly always include one or more interviews. Rating scales also been developed to provide a tool for quickly determining both your own personality and the personality of others. The Child Behavior Checklist and Beck s Depression Inventory are two examples. Rating scales of self are particularly subject to problems relating to self-knowledge. In other words, the better you know yourself, the better the rating will be. The same logic applies to ratings of others. An interesting problem with ratings, in general, is the halo effect. The halo effect states that extreme scores on one rating will affect nearby subsequent scores in the same. So, an extreme negative rating on an item will bias the next several items in a negative direction. The effect holds for extreme positive ratings too. In essay tests, you can exploit the halo effect by submitting your best answer first. However, some instructors attempt to control for this known halo effect by reading essay tests by the question, not by the student. 17

18 Other widely used personality inventories include the CPI (California Personality Inventory) and the Myers-Briggs. All these techniques ask subjects a great many questions in a pencil and paper format and in the answers yield scores on a number of scales. Those scale scores are usually reported in a standard way, creating a "personality profile" of the individual. The MMPI also includes scales designed to check for random responding and faking "tough" or "nice." One should not rely on scores on inventories as the only method of assessment. But when used correctly, they provide valuable shortcuts to a quick view into an individual's personality. Projective techniques as you will recall, originally stemmed from psychoanalytic theory. Named for the defense mechanism of projections they were designed to tap into a person's unconscious without that person being aware of such probing. The most famous include the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the TAT, or Thematic Apperception Test. Another projective test, the Draw-a-House, Tree, Person Test asks participants to draw themselves and their family members, their houses or even to draw a tree. Their drawings are then interpreted. For example, a six-year-old girl s drawing of her parents and siblings as huge and herself is very small may be interpreted as a reflection of her perception of her role in the family. While projective tests can be useful in individual cases, they are subject to multiple interpretations and are usually not used in comparing participants 18