A HI S T O RY of MODE RN. P SYC HO L O G Y in C ONT EXT

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1 PICKREN RUTHERFORD A FRESH LOOK at THE H I S T O RY o f P S Y C H O L O G Y PLACED IN ITS SOCIAL, P O L I T I C A L, a n d C U LT U R A L CONTEXTS The authors complicate the notion of who is at the center and who is at the periphery of the history of psychology by bringing in actors and events that are often overlooked in traditional accounts. They also highlight how the reflexive nature of Psychology a science produced both by and about humans accords history a prominent place in understanding the discipline and the theories it generates. Throughout the text, the authors show how Psychology and psychologists are embedded in cultures that indelibly shape how the discipline is defined and practiced, the kind of knowledge it creates, and how this knowledge is received. The text also moves beyond an exclusive focus on the development of North American and European psychologies to explore the development of psychologies in other indigenous contexts, especially from the mid-20th-century onward. WADE E. PICKREN, P H D, is the Historian of the American Psychological Association. For eight years, Wade was both APA Historian and Director of Archives. He is currently on the psychology faculty at Ryerson University in Toronto and continues to serve as APA Historian. ALEXANDRA RUTHERFORD, P H D, is Associate Professor of psychology in the History and Theory of Psychology Graduate Program at York University. She is the official historian of the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues and the Heritage Chair of the Society for the Psychology of Women. A HI S T O RY of MODE RN P SYC HO L O G Y in C ONT EXT A History of Modern Psychology in Context presents the history of modern psychology in the richness of its many contexts. The authors resist the traditional storylines of great achievements by eminent people, or schools of thought that rise and fall in the wake of scientific progress. Instead, psychology is portrayed as a network of scientific and professional practices embedded in specific temporal, social, political, and cultural contexts. The narrative is informed by three key concepts indigenization, reflexivity, and social constructionism and by the fascinating interplay between disciplinary Psychology and everyday psychology. A HIST ORY o f MODE RN PSYCHOLOGY in CONTEXT WA D E E. P I C K R E N ISBN: AND ALEXANDRA RUTHERFORD 4-COLOR GLOSSY

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3 AHISTORYOF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY IN CONTEXT

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5 AHISTORYOF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY IN CONTEXT Wade E. Pickren and Alexandra Rutherford A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

6 This book is printed on acid-free paper. Copyright 2010 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) , fax (978) , or on the web at Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) , fax (201) Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If legal, accounting, medical, psychological or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. In all instances where John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is aware of a claim, the product names appear in initial capital or all capital letters. Readers, however, should contact the appropriate companies for more complete information regarding trademarks and registration. For general information on our other products and services please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) , outside the United States at (317) or fax (317) Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. For more information about Wiley products, visit our website at Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Pickren, Wade E. A history of modern psychology in context / by Wade E. Pickren & Alexandra Rutherford. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN Psychology History. I. Rutherford, Alexandra, II. Title. BF81.P dc Printed in the United States of America

7 To Emily and Graham, your idealism and love of living are always an inspiration to us.

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9 BRIEF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 ORIGINS OF A SCIENCE OF MIND 3 CHAPTER 2 EVERYDAY LIFE AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES 24 CHAPTER 3 SUBJECT MATTER, METHODS, AND THE MAKING OF A NEW SCIENCE 42 CHAPTER 4 FROM PERIPHERY TO CENTER: CREATING AN AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGY 71 CHAPTER 5 THE PRACTICE OF PSYCHOLOGY AT THE INTERFACE WITH MEDICINE 94 CHAPTER 6 PSYCHOLOGISTS AS TESTERS: APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY, ORDERING SOCIETY 118 CHAPTER 7 AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND PRACTICE BETWEEN THE WORLD WARS 148 CHAPTER 8 PSYCHOLOGY IN EUROPE BETWEEN THE WORLD WARS 178 CHAPTER 9 THE GOLDEN AGE OF AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGY 208 CHAPTER 10 INTERNATIONALIZATION AND INDIGENIZATION OF PSYCHOLOGY AFTER WORLD WAR II 238 CHAPTER 11 FEMINISM AND AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGY: THE SCIENCE AND POLITICS OF GENDER 262 CHAPTER 12 INCLUSIVENESS, IDENTITY, AND CONFLICT IN LATE 20TH-CENTURY AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGY 288 CHAPTER 13 BRAIN, BEHAVIOR, AND COGNITION SINCE

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11 CONTENTS Preface and Acknowledgments Introduction Why History? Why History of Psychology? Reflexivity Social Constructionism Indigenization Other Aspects of Our Story Organizational Overview Bibliographic Essay xv xvii xviii xix xx xxi xxii xxiv xxv CHAPTER 1 ORIGINS OF A SCIENCE OF MIND 3 Introduction 3 Philosophy: Descartes and Locke as Exemplars 4 René Descartes ( ) 5 John Locke ( ) 6 The Legacy of Descartes and Locke for Psychology 8 Physiology and Medicine: The Search for Material Explanations of Human Nature 8 Medicine and Naturalistic Explanation 8 Research in the Physiology of the Nervous System 12 The Mechanization of the Brain 13 Sidebar 1.1 Focus on Christine Ladd-Franklin 15 Darwin, Natural Selection, and the Laws of Nature 16 Journey to the Galapagos 17 Continuity: Humans and Natural Law 19 Summary 20 Bibliographic Essay 21 CHAPTER 2 EVERYDAY LIFE AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES 24 Introduction 24 New Technologies 25 Technologies of Devotion and Piety 25 Technologies of Self-Perception and Self-Expression 26 Psychological Consequences of Commercial Society 27 Changes in Family Life 29 Reading the Signs of the Body in the Era of Industrial Capitalism 30 The First Industrial Revolution 31 Reading the Signs of the Body 32 Physiognomy 33 Phrenology 33 Sidebar 2.1 Focus on the Fowler Brothers 36 Summary 38 Bibliographic Essay 39 CHAPTER 3 SUBJECT MATTER, METHODS, AND THE MAKING OF A NEW SCIENCE 42 Introduction 42 Can Psychology Be a Science? 43 Kant s Challenge 43 Psychophysics and the Possibility of a New Science 45

12 x CONTENTS The German Intellectual Tradition 47 Wilhelm Wundt and the New Psychology 49 Psychology in Britain and France 52 The New Psychology in America 53 William James and a Science of Psychology 53 The Principles of Psychology 54 The Demise of Introspection in American Psychology 56 Thorndike, the Animal Mind, and Animal Behavior 57 Pavlov, Animal Learning, and the Environment 59 Perry and Changing Beliefs About the Nature of Consciousness 59 Watson and the Rise of Behaviorism 60 Behaviorism: Influential but Contested 61 Sidebar 3.1 Focus on Mary Whiton Calkins 62 Behaviorism and American Life 63 Summary 65 Bibliographic Essay 66 CHAPTER 4 FROM PERIPHERY TO CENTER: CREATING AN AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGY 71 Introduction 71 American Mental and Moral Philosophy 73 Forging a Psychological Sensibility: From Religion to Psychical Research 75 Religion and Revival 76 Mesmerism and Religion 77 Spiritualism 78 New Thought 79 Psychical Phenomena 79 Boundary Work and the New Psychology: Establishing the Center and Marking the Periphery 80 American Psychologists: Organization and Application 82 Organizing for Science 82 Making Psychology Useful 84 Engaging the Public 84 Education: The Pay Vein That Supports the Mine 85 Psychologists in Industry 87 Sidebar 4.1 Focus on Lillian Moller Gilbreth 88 Summary 89 Bibliographic Essay 91 CHAPTER 5 THE PRACTICE OF PSYCHOLOGY AT THE INTERFACE WITH MEDICINE 94 Introduction 94 Enlightenment and Madness 94 From Mesmerism to Hypnosis 97 Charcot: The Napoleon of the Neuroses 99 Sigmund Freud ( ) 101 Sidebar 5.1 Focus on Bertha Pappenheim 103 Freud s Impact on Psychology as a Mental Health Profession 106 Therapeutic Nihilism 106 Psychologists, Psychoanalysis, and Mental Health in America 107 Boundaries Between Psychology and Medicine 109 Mental Testing 109 Psychologists and the Question of Boundaries with Psychoanalysis 109 Psychoanalysis and Psychosomatic Medicine 110 Psychoanalysis Outside Europe and North America 112 Psychologists, Psychoanalysis, and Mental Health in India 112 Psychoanalysis in Argentina 113 Summary 113 Bibliographic Essay 114

13 CONTENTS xi CHAPTER 6 PSYCHOLOGISTS AS TESTERS: APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY, ORDERING SOCIETY 118 Introduction 118 The Roots of Mental Testing in America 120 MentalTestsGototheFair 121 Lightner Witmer and the Prehistory of Clinical Psychology 123 Sorting the Sexes 124 Sidebar 6.1 Focus on Leta Stetter Hollingworth 126 The Demise of Mental Tests and the Rise of the IQ 128 Lewis Terman and the Americanization of Intelligence Testing 131 Army Intelligence: World War I Puts Psychology on the Map 132 World War I and Its Impact on American Psychology 136 Intelligence Testing Around the World: Center or Periphery? 137 The French Twist 137 The British Context 138 Dutch Society 140 Germany and Psychotechnics 140 What Did the Tests Test? 142 Summary 142 Bibliographic Essay 143 CHAPTER 7 AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND PRACTICE BETWEEN THE WORLD WARS 148 Introduction 148 Who Owns Psychology? 149 Organization and Cooperation 150 Organization 150 Cooperative Research and Philanthropy 152 The Kingdom of Behavior: Mainstream Psychology, Neobehaviorism 154 Developing Developmental Psychology 157 Sidebar 7.1 Focus on Mary Cover Jones 159 Race, Ethnicity, Intelligence, and Resistance 161 Psychologists and Scientific Racism 162 Challenges to Psychometric Racism 162 Sexuality Research 164 Personality Psychology 165 Assessing Personality 165 Henry Murray, the Harvard Psychological Clinic, and the TAT 166 Personality, Personnel, and the Management of the Worker 168 The Disciplinary Emergence of Social Psychology in America 169 Summary 173 Bibliographic Essay 174 CHAPTER 8 PSYCHOLOGY IN EUROPE BETWEEN THE WORLD WARS 178 Introduction 178 Psychology, Natural Science, and Philosophy in Germany and Austria 179 Gestalt Psychology in Germany 179 Kurt Lewin ( ) 184 The Dorpat School of Religious Psychology 186 German Psychology After Psychology in Vienna 188 Sidebar 8.1 Focus on Marie Jahoda 189 Psychology, Natural Science, and Philosophy Across Continental Europe 190 Developments in France 191 Developments in the Netherlands 192 Psychology in Russia and the Early Years of the Soviet Union 193 Psychotechnics 195 Psychology in Britain 198

14 xii CONTENTS Psychology at Cambridge 199 War and Psychology in Britain 201 Summary 202 Bibliographic Essay 203 CHAPTER 9 THE GOLDEN AGE OF AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGY 208 Introduction 208 Preparing for War 208 The National Council of Women Psychologists 209 War Service 210 Psychiatric Casualties and the Consolidation of Clinical Psychology 212 Golden Age of Psychology 213 Postwar Initiatives for Training Mental Health Professionals 214 Clinical Psychology and the VA 216 National Institute of Mental Health 217 Challenges to the New Clinical Psychology 218 Psychology versus Psychiatry 219 Antipsychiatry and the Treatment of Mental Disorders 219 Diversifying Psychological Research in the Golden Age 220 VA Clinical Research 220 The NIMH and the Expansion of Research 221 B. F. Skinner, Culture, and Controversy 222 The Third Force: Humanistic Psychology Challenges the Status Quo 226 Complicating Social Psychology 229 Psychologists, Racial Identity, and Civil Rights 229 Sidebar 9.1 Focus on Kenneth and Mamie Phipps Clark 230 Interracial Housing 232 Summary 234 Bibliographic Essay 234 CHAPTER 10 INTERNATIONALIZATION AND INDIGENIZATION OF PSYCHOLOGY AFTER WORLD WAR II 238 Introduction 238 Internationalization and Indigenization 239 Back Story: Western Psychology in Non-Western Settings 242 China 242 Japan 244 India 244 Africa 245 Indigenous Psychologies 246 Indigenization in Context 247 Liberation and Nonalignment in Postcolonial Nations 248 Examples of Indigenous Psychologies 249 Refashioning Psychology for a Cultural Match in India 249 Sidebar 10.1 Focus on Jai B. P. Sinha 250 Fashioning an Indigenous Psychology in the Philippines 252 Toward a Liberation Psychology in Latin America 253 Toward a Psychology of Liberation 255 Summary 257 Bibliographic Essay 258 CHAPTER 11 FEMINISM AND AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGY: THE SCIENCE AND POLITICS OF GENDER 262 Introduction 262 Bringing Feminism to Psychology 265 Feminist Critiques of Clinical Psychology and Psychiatry, and Alternatives 266 Sex Differences Revisited 268 From Sex to Gender 270 A Theory of Their Own: The Relational Approach 271

15 CONTENTS xiii Owning the Past: Origins of Women s History in Psychology 272 Sidebar 11.1 Focus on Ruth Howard 275 Creating an Inclusive Feminist Psychology 276 Feminist Psychologies in International Context 277 Feminist and Postcolonial Critiques of Science and Psychology in the 1980s 279 Summary 281 Bibliographic Essay 282 CHAPTER 12 INCLUSIVENESS, IDENTITY, AND CONFLICT IN LATE 20TH-CENTURY AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGY 288 Introduction 288 Toward an Inclusive Psychology 289 Institutional Changes 291 Training Psychologists to Serve Ethnic Minority Populations 293 Sidebar 12.1 Focus on Joseph L. White 294 Psychologists and the Community 296 A Question of Professional Identity 299 Psychologists, Government, and National Security 300 Government and the Direction of Psychological Science 302 Summary 304 Bibliographic Essay 305 CHAPTER 13 BRAIN, BEHAVIOR, AND COGNITION SINCE Introduction 310 The Return of the Mind 311 Sidebar 13.1 Focus on Enriched Environments 313 Neuropsychology of Cognition and Memory 315 How Does Memory Work? 317 Minds and Machines 318 Computations and Computers 318 Babbage s Engines 318 Turing s Game 320 Toward the Machine-as-Brain Metaphor 320 Information Theory and Cybernetics 322 Language Returns 326 Summary 328 Concluding Thoughts 329 Bibliographic Essay 330 References 332 Glossary 351 Index 359