TODAY:! Lecture: Sources of variation! (Chapter 2, Textbook)!!! NEXT TUESDAY:! Lecture: Speciation (Chapter 3: Textbook)! Lab: Morphological
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1 TODAY:! Lecture: Sources of variation! (Chapter 2, Textbook)!!! NEXT TUESDAY:! Lecture: Speciation (Chapter 3: Textbook)! Lab: Morphological variation in natural populations (Chap. 2: Textbook)!
2 !!Sources of Variation in Fossils!1. Genotypic (i.e., genes and!!!chromosomes)!!2. Sexual (e.g., sexual dimorphism)!!3. Ontogenetic (i.e., growth stage)! 4. Environmental: Ecophenotypic variation arising from differences in the environment.!
3 !!Sources of Variation in Fossils!1. Genotypic (i.e., genes and!!!chromosomes)!!2. Sexual (e.g. sexual dimorphism)!!3. Ontogenetic (i.e., growth stage)! 4. Environmental: Ecophenotypic variation arising from differences in the environment.!
4 Discovery of the Structure of DNA
5 Genes are organized into Chromosomes!
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7 Mutations!
8 Sexual Reproduction! Cellular Differentiation! Regulated Development (ontogeny)!
9 Sources of Variation 1: Genetic!! Genetic differences between the individuals of a population.!! Every genotype includes alternative alleles (i.e., different versions) of the structural genes responsible for protein synthesis.!! Mutations in regulatory genes that control the timing of expression of structural genes during development can lead to differences in ontogenetic development.! Drosophila! wing mutants! Axolotyl eye mutants!
10 Color/Pattern Polymorphism in Insects!
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12 Phenotypic variation in the land snail, Cerion.!
13 Process-Response Model for Originating Phenotypes!
14 !!Sources of Variation in Fossils!1. Genotypic (i.e., genes and!!!chromosomes)!!2. Sexual (e.g. sexual dimorphism)!!3. Ontogenetic (i.e., growth stage)! 4. Environmental: Ecophenotypic variation arising from differences in the environment.!
15 Sex Determination in Humans: X-Y Chromosomes!!Male gametes (sperm cells) in humans and other mammals contain one of two types of sex chromosomes: X or Y. These cells are called heterogametic.!!the female gametes (eggs) contain only the X sex chromosome and are homogametic.!!the sperm cell determines the sex of an individual in this case.!if a sperm cell containing an X chromosome fertilizes an egg, the resulting zygote will be XX or female.!if the sperm cell contains a Y chromosome, then the resulting zygote will be XY or male.
16 Human Karyotype! Human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46. There are 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes (X and Y) which determine gender.!
17 Sexual dimorphism in the gorilla! Female! Male! Female! Male!
18 Sex Chromosomes X-O!! Grasshoppers, roaches, and other insects have a similar system for determining the sex of an individual.!adult males lack a Y sex chromosome and have only an X chromosome.!they produce sperm cells that contain either an X chromosome or no sex chromosome, which is designated as O.!The females are XX and produce egg cells that contain an X chromosome.!if an X sperm cell fertilizes an egg, the resulting zygote will be XX or female.!if a sperm cell containing no sex chromosome fertilizes an egg, the resulting zygote will be XO or male.
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20 Sex Chromosomes Z-W!! Birds, insects like butterflies, and some species of fish have a different system for determining gender.! In these animals it is the female gamete that determines the sex of an individual.! Female gametes can either contain a Z chromosome or a W chromosome.! Male gametes contain only the Z chromosome.! Females of these species are ZW and males are ZZ.
21 Bird of Paradise!
22 Sexual dimorphism in fossil ammonites!
23 !!Sources of Variation in Fossils!1. Genotypic (i.e., genes and!!!chromosomes)!!2. Sexual (e.g. sexual dimorphism)!!3. Ontogenetic (i.e., growth stage)! 4. Environmental: Ecophenotypic variation arising from differences in the environment.!
24 Ontogeny!! Derives from the Greek for coming into being!! Variation arising from differences in stage (age) of development.! - Ontogeny of Charles Darwin!
25 Features of ontogeny!! Age (stages of development).!! Interactions with environment (e.g. development in twins).!! Growth strategy:!! Isometric: Proportions between elements of form remain constant during ontogeny.!! Allometric: Proportions between elements of form change during ontogeny.!
26 Ontogentic Stages in Trilobites! Three larval stages are recognized: a protaspid period, meraspid period, and a holaspid period.
27 Brood Pouches in Trilobites see Fortey, R.A. & N.C. Hughes Brood pouches in trilobites. J. Paleontol. 72(4): by S. M. Gon after Fortey & Hughes 1998 from Fortey & Hughes 1998
28 Ontogeny of a typical arborescent lycopsid (Lepidodendron). Note differences in leaves of immature versus mature growth stages!
29 -! Darwin s contemporary.! -! Proposed the so-called biogenetic law: Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny (see text).! -! This law suggested that the overall patterns of evolution of species and higher taxa are recorded in their embryological development.! -! Interesting notion, but it took the evolutionary importance of embryogenesis to far!! Ernst Haekel!
30 Biogenetic Law!
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34 !!Sources of Variation in Fossils!1. Genotypic (i.e., genes and!!!chromosomes)!!2. Sexual (e.g. sexual dimorphism)!!3. Ontogenetic (i.e., growth stage)! 4. Environmental: Ecophenotypic variation arising from differences in the environment.!
35 Sources of Variation: Environmental Factors"! Ecophenotypic!! Ecological (i.e., driven by organism-environment interactions).!! Examples:!! Differences in clonal organisms.!! Reef corals.!! Caste formation in social insects.!! Environmental control of shell ornamentation in molluscs (temperature, salinity and nutrition).!
36 ! Ecophenotypic (environmentally -induced) variation in reef corals (see text).!
37 Variation (cont)!
38 !! Termite mounds Litchfield park, AU
39 Ecophenotypic Variation " in Plant Clones!! The diagram of two ecophenotypic variants of the marsh plant Sagittaria reproduced by Schmalhausen (1986). On the left is the 'dry' variant, and on the right the 'wet' variant. How does the plant 'know' which morphology to produce, and how does it do it?!
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42 In-class exercise: Assessing morphological variation in natural populations! Divide into four groups. Each group should examine one of the collections provided (snail, butterfly and coral populations). For the snails, begin by arranging individuals according to their body size (ontogenetic series) and next by morphological tyoes within each of the general size categories. For the butterfly population, compare differences in color and wing shape. For the corals, examine the types of variation seen between the individual polyps making up each colony.!
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