Gender role stereotyping and art interpretation

Transcription

1 University of Iowa Iowa Research Online Theses and Dissertations Spring 2015 Gender role stereotyping and art interpretation Elizabeth A. Bloomfield University of Iowa Copyright 2015 Elizabeth A. Bloomfield This thesis is available at Iowa Research Online: Recommended Citation Bloomfield, Elizabeth A.. "Gender role stereotyping and art interpretation." MA (Master of Arts) thesis, University of Iowa, Follow this and additional works at: Part of the Education Commons

2 GENDER ROLE STEREOTYPING AND ART INTERPRETATION by Elizabeth Ann Bloomfield A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts degree in Teaching and Learning (Art Education) in the Graduate College of The University of Iowa May 2015 Thesis Supervisor: Clinical Associate Professor Clara M. Baldus

3 Copyright by ELIZABETH ANN BLOOMFIELD 2015 All Rights Reserved

4 Graduate College The University of Iowa Iowa City, Iowa CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL MASTER'S THESIS This is to certify that the Master's thesis of Elizabeth Ann Bloomfield has been approved by the Examining Committee for the thesis requirement for the Master of Arts degree in Teaching and Learning (Art Education) at the May 2015 graduation. Thesis Committee: Clara M. Baldus, Thesis Supervisor Carol A. Coohey John L. Hosp Rachel M. Williams

5 This thesis is dedicated to my parents for their endless love and support. And to Emily. ii

6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my deepest appreciation for my committee chair, Dr. Clara Baldus, who has given me unwavering support through my journey at the University of Iowa. I would also like to thank my committee members, Carol Coohey and Rachel Williams for all their support and guidance. iii

7 ABSTRACT This research explores the relationship between gender role stereotypes and art interpretation. The study focuses on survey results collected from high school students in an art education classroom and undergraduate college students in an art exploration course. The aim of the study was to determine if gender role stereotypes affects the way that individuals perceive artwork as created by a male or female artist. Results show that gender role stereotyping along with the gender of the participant affects the symbolism within the artwork that results in the attribution of artwork being created by a male or female artists. It also demonstrates a perceived decrease in gender role stereotypes of males over the past 42 years. iv

8 PUBLIC ABSTRACT This research explores the relationship between gender role stereotypes and art interpretation. The study focuses on survey results collected from high school students in an art education classroom and undergraduate college students in an art exploration course. The aim of the study was to determine if gender role stereotypes affects the way that individuals perceive artwork as created by a male or female artist. Results show that gender role stereotyping along with the gender of the participant affects the symbolism within the artwork that results in the attribution of artwork being created by a male or female artists. It also demonstrates a perceived decrease in gender role stereotypes of males over the past 42 years. v

9 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES... vii LIST OF FIGURES... viii INTRODUCTION... 1 Purpose and Research Questions... 2 LITERATURE REVIEW... 4 Gender Role Stereotyping... 4 Psychoanalytic Theories... 7 Social Learning Theories... 8 Cognitive Developmental Theories... 8 Image Interpretation and Visual Literacy Bem Sex-Role Inventory Gender Role Stereotyping and Image Interpretation Summary METHODOLOGY Design Settings Sample Characteristics Data Collection Procedures Measures Survey One: Identification of Artists Gender and Rationale Selection of Artwork Survey Two: The Social Desirability Questionnaire DATA ANALYSIS RESULTS Social Desirability Questionnaire DISCUSSION Summary Limitations Implications for Future Research and Education Implications for Art Education CONCLUSION REFERENCES Appendix A- Artist Gender Survey Appendix B- The Social Desirability Questionnaire Appendix C- List of Images Appendix D- Slide 1 Artist Gender Survey Results Appendix E- Slide 2 Artist Gender Survey Results Appendix F- Slide 3 Artist Gender Survey Results Appendix G- Slide 4 Artist Gender Survey Results Appendix H- Slide 5 Artist Gender Survey Results Appendix I- Slide 6 Artist Gender Survey Results Appendix J- Slide 7 Artist Gender Survey Results Appendix K- Slide 8 Artist Gender Survey Results Appendix L- Slide 9 Artist Gender Survey Results Appendix M- Slide 10 Artist Gender Survey Results Appendix N- Slide 11 Artist Gender Survey Results Appendix O- Slide 12 Artist Gender Survey Results Appendix P- Slide 13 Artist Gender Survey Results Appendix Q- Slide 14 Artist Gender Survey Results Appendix R- Slide 15 Artist Gender Survey Results vi

10 LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Bem Masculinity/ Femininity Score Chart Table 2. SLIDE 1 GENDER Table 3. SLIDE 2 GENDER Table 4. SLIDE 3 GENDER Table 5. SLIDE 4 GENDER Table 6. SLIDE 5 GENDER Table 7. SLIDE 6 GENDER Table 8. SLIDE 7 GENDER Table 9. SLIDE 8 GENDER Table 10. SLIDE 9 GENDER Table 11. SLIDE 10 GENDER Table 12. SLIDE 11 GENDER Table 13. SLIDE 12 GENDER Table 14. SLIDE 13 GENDER Table 15. SLIDE 14 GENDER Table 16. SLIDE 15 GENDER Table 17. Summary of Qualitative Results Table 18. Masculine Characteristics Results Table 19. Feminine Characteristics Results Table 20. Filler Characteristics Results vii

11 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. (Male) Wood, Grant. (1932). Daughters of the American Revolution Figure 2. (Male) David, Jacque Louis. (1784). The Oath of Horati Figure 3. (Male) Fresquet, Jose Gomez. (1970). La modelo y la vietnamita Figure 4. (Male) Fogel, Seymour. (1942). The Security of the People Figure 5. (Male) Toulouse- Lautrec, Henri De (1894). In the Salon at Rue des Moulins Figure 6. (Female) Buset, Elizabeth. (2011). Gender-roles Figure 7. (Male) Kocks, Andreas. (2007). Paperwork #701G (in the beginning) Figure 8. (Male) Steen, Jan. (1665). Life of Man Figure 9. (Female) Rrap, Julie. (2001). Overstepping Figure 10. (Female) Peeters, Clara. (1615). Still Life with Cheeses, Almonds and Pretzels Figure 11. (Male) Lhote, Andre. (1913). Port of Call Figure 12. (Female) VigeeLe-Brunn, Elizabeth (1786). Self-Portrait of Her Daughter, Julie Figure 13. (Female) Jablonska, Elzbieta. (2002). Super Mother Figure 14. (Female) Dill, Lesley. (1994). Dada Poem Wedding Dress Figure 15. (Female) Spencer, Lilly Martin. (1822). War Spirit at Home viii 8

12 INTRODUCTION From birth we socialize our children to take on gender-roles of either boys or girls. The choices that we make as parents and teachers, beginning with the colors we choose for their nursery, the clothing we dress them in and the way that we treat them, all contribute to the gender-roles those children take on. Children will eventually develop their biases about gender-roles and what it means in our society. Those biases contribute to how the child, and eventually the young adult, will see the world and interpret the images around him/her. I want to look at how perception of gender and gender-roles affect how students see their world and, particularly, perceive the images of art that are presented to them. We live in a digital society that allows for so many more images to be a part of our daily lives. Students are being constantly bombarded by images and symbols that send them messages about who they are and what they should be. Students identify with images and, ultimately, who they are and what they should be about. I believe this bombardment of images influences students perception of what it means to be a man or a woman, and their gendering of artwork. There has been a great deal of research that has been done on gender-role stereotypes and image interpretation but the research that combines the two is very limited. Much of the research on image interpretation has been targeted at identifying inequality of the representation of male and female images. The research on gender-role stereotyping seems to focus on whether gender-role stereotypes are present in the participant and at what age they seem to first develop stereotypes. Over the last several decades we have focused a great deal on gender bias and, more specifically, on empowering women. As I look at gender-role stereotyping in Generation Z, people born between , I want to see whether it has changed the way that students are evaluating artwork. Are there still strong gender-role stereotyping in Generation Z after 43 years of work empowering women and attempting to redefine gender-roles? 1

13 Purpose and Research Questions The purpose of this research study is to identify how higher levels of gender-role stereotypes indentified with a standardized test effects the gender students assign to artwork. Therefore, I pose two research questions: 1a. Do participants identify symbolism? And, if yes, what is the symbolism they identify in the artwork that is related to their attribution of being a male or female artist? 1b.What will be the strongest perceived symbols in the artwork? 1c. Does the gender of the participant matter? 2. Does Generation Z report less gender-role stereotyping on The Social Desirability Questionnaire than the generation 43 years ago? In my study, I will collect data from two samples. One sample will be from undergraduate university students, and the second sample will be high school students. The students will be shown 15 images of artwork and asked to assign a gender to the artist of that artwork and provide a justification for why they selected that gender. The second part of the survey will be a Social Desirability Survey created by Sandra Lipsitz Bem (1973) to measure gender-role stereotyping. The survey will be used to identify the level of gender-role stereotypes present in the student. The 15 images used were selected because I perceived them to have both male and female symbols and could be perceived to be created by either a man or a woman. I sought diversity in the images selected; they are from artists of both genders, different time periods, various mediums and different content. The analysis will be done using different methods for each research question. Quantitative analysis will be used to analyze artist gender selection and the responses to the Social Desirability Survey. Qualitative analysis will be used for the reasons the students identify in writing for selecting the particular gender of the artist for the image. 2

14 I believe this study will add to the existing literature about gender in art and art education, society and gender-role stereotyping, and image interpretation. This study may impact art education by identifying student bias and assist in the development of future curriculum. 3

15 LITERATURE REVIEW In the literature review, I examine what research says about gender-role stereotyping, gender in art and image interpretation. Gender-roles and gender-role stereotyping has been studied from many different perspectives; in this literature review, I will present the different theories of gender-role stereotyping. Gender-Role Stereotyping Gender-role stereotyping is something that is often not talked about but impacts our lives every day. In our current technological age, we can determine the sex of our fetus before it is even born. From that moment of discovery, we begin socializing our children to be either masculine or feminine. The questions that we seek to explore are: How do gender-role stereotypes effect the way Generation Z (those born between ) view artwork? Does the gender of the participant matter? What will be the strongest symbols in the artwork? Does Generation Z report less gender role stereotyping on The Social Desirability Questionnaire than the generation 43 years ago? Gender-role stereotyping is a simplistic generalization about the differences in male and female behavior and interests expressed by each gender. The differences between males and females can be attributed to more than anatomy. Sex hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen are considered to be contributors to the more aggressive nature of males and the more moody nature in females. Those differences unrelated to anatomy and sex hormones have been attributed to learned characteristics about how to be masculine and feminine (Moore, 2010). Gender-roles play a big part in our society. Roles are sets of norms that define how people in a given social position ought to behave. (Moore, 2010). Gender-roles are learned attributes that make an individual masculine or feminine. These expected behaviors affect each of us very differently, and it is important to think about the positive and negative effects that of gender-role stereotyping has, on our youth. These cultural expectations have a big impact on our daily lives and our perception of what it means to be male or female. In our society, women are expected to express more feminine 4

16 characteristics such as tending to the children, cooking and soothing hurt feelings. Men are expected to be more aggressive and the provider for the family. Stereotypes for femininity include expectations to be domestic, warm, pretty, emotional, dependent, physically weak and passive. By contrast, men are thought of as being more competitive and less emotional then women (Moore, 2010). Socially we can see gender-stereotypes at work on children from a very young age. Boy babies are dressed in colors such as blue and green, whereas girl babies are dressed in pink. Recently, a friend came to visit my daughter and I in our home and told me that he didn t know how to play with my little girl. I asked him how he played with his nephews and informed him that he can play with her in exactly the same way. It is common to see people play more roughly with baby boys than baby girls, even though at that age they are relatively similar in interests and desires. The important point to be made here is the fact that people believe the socially defined characteristics and act on them treating men and women differently (Renzetti & Curran, 2003). Gender-role development has been shown to develop at a very young age. Gender stereotypes begin to produce gender-typed behavior patterns toward behaviors that are socially gender-appropriate (Pillari, 1998). Research indicates that children as young as eighteen months show preferences for genderstereotyped toys. By the age of two, they are aware of their own and others gender and between two and three years of age, they begin to identify specific traits and behaviors in gender stereotyped ways (Golombock & Fivush, 1994). (Pillari, 1998) Gender-role stereotypes have shown to affect parent child interaction. Female babies show a more secure attachment to their mothers at the age of 14 months. Though the children showed no difference in behavior between the ages of 14 to 24 months the response of the mothers was different toward their children (Connor 1996). Mothers of girls were more sensitive, in contrast to more restrictive toward boys. Similar research also shows that parents communicate differently with their children depending upon their gender. The way that parents dress their children also impacts gender 5

17 stereotypes. Female children are dressed in more restrictive clothing which doesn t allow for the same kind of active play as boys. (Renzetti & Curran, 2003) Early childhood is the time when gender socialization occurs. Gender expectations are reinforced with rewards and punishment. Boys tend to receive harsher punishment when engaging in activities that are seen as being not gender appropriate behaviors. Stronger pressure on male children to adhere to gender stereotypes results in stronger gender type preferences at an earlier age in male children (Bussey & Bandura, 1992; Lobel & Menashri, 1993). Toys play a big part in socializing gender in children. There are toys that are marketed to children and parents that are gender-typed. The images in the toy catalogs identify a model playing with the toy and place that toy in a very specific gender category or identify their gender appropriateness. Girls toys were usually dolls or household appliances. Boys were shown with action figures, military equipment, building blocks and vehicular toys. Research has shown that, though parents buy toys that their children prefer, it may be due to early parental encouragement. The different toys foster different traits and abilities in children. Toys for boys tend to encourage exploration, manipulation, invention, construction, competition and aggression. In contrast, girls toys typically rate high on manipulability, but also creativity, nurturance, and attractiveness. (Renzetti & Curran, 2003) Richardson and Simpson conducted a research study in 1982 to determine the toy preference of children. The responses were collected from the toys requested from Santa Claus by the children. Data was collected from 750 children between 5-9 years of age. The results indicated that the children requested gender-typed toys and girls were more likely to request opposite-sex toys than boys. The study was replicated in the 1990s and found no difference in results (Etaugh & Liss 1992) (Pallari, 1998). 6

18 There are also more subtle ways that gender is socialized, some of the gender socialization happens through observation and interactions of adult behavior and that of their peers. It can also be socialized by the clothing, books and toys that we purchase for our children. There are many theories about how young children acquire their gender identities. The three major categories of theories are psychoanalytic theories, social learning theories and cognitive development theories (Renzetti & Curran, 2003). Psychoanalytic Theories The most famous psychoanalytical theory about gender identity development was a perspective by Sigmund Freud. The perspective is called identification theory. Freud s theory identified stages in personality development. During the Phallic stage is when identification takes place and the children begin to model their behavior after the parent with the same sex. This is where children learn to behave in gender appropriate ways. Boys are driven by castration anxiety and girls are driven by penis envy. Freud also portrayed the gendered behaviors acquired in early childhood as fixed and stable over time (Renzetti & Curran, 2003). Another psychoanalytical theorist is Nancy Chodorow whose perspective described the gender identity as being social. The female children were able to identify with their mothers because they are present with the female children throughout the day to maintain an ongoing relationship with them, thus creating greater ties. This bond allows the girl to grow to a woman and nurture her own children. The male children were not able to identify and grow a bond with their fathers because they were often absent from the home, which made males emotionally detached and repressed. However, a criticism of psychoanalytical theory is that these are unconscious processes and cannot be observed. They are simply a perception of someone s behavior and memories. In addition, the bias of the observer also contributes to the subjectiveness of the data (Renzetti and Curran, 2003). 7

19 Social Learning Theories Social learning theories focus on behaviors that are observable. Reinforcement is the key to social learning theories. Rewarded behaviors will likely occur again; whereas punished behaviors will likely not occur again. Those behaviors that are gender appropriate are reinforced in the form of praise. In contrast, those behaviors that are not gender- appropriate are punished in explicit ways such as criticism or implicit ways by denying the child interaction. Children also learn through observation of others, which can be a form of indirect reinforcement (Renzetti & Curran, 2003). A criticism of Social Learning Theories is that research has indicated that children are not passive recipients of social messages (Coraro & Eder 1990,p. 198). Also, children do not always model their behavior after the same sex parent; although males are less likely to model their behavior after an opposite sex parent. Cognitive Developmental Theories This theory focuses on children s need to create order in their world by looking for patterns and organizing their observations and experiences into categories or schema. Children use sex as a characteristic because it is easily observable. Males and females dress differently, look differently, and often act differently, which makes sex an easy category for the immature mind. Cognitive development theory provides an explanation for why children express rigidly stereotyped ideas about gender. Children show preference for toys and activities appropriate for their gender, as well as, show preference for same sex-friends (Cann & Palmer 1986; Cowan & Hoffman 1986) (Renzetti & Curran, 2003). Some of the criticisms of the cognitive development theories are that research has shown evidence that children are socialized differently based on their race and class. The theories also don t see gender identity as something developed through socialization or culture, but rather something the 8

20 child does independently. Consistently throughout all theories there is a theme of value. A value is placed on behaviors that are either gender appropriate ( good ) or not gender appropriate ( bad ). Other Literature and Research More literature about gender-role stereotypes can be found in an essay titled Looks Maketh the Man : The Female Gaze and the Construction of Masculinity by Kevin Goddard (2000). In this essay Goddard discusses the impact of the female gaze on male western culture. He points out that there has been many changes to the historical gender-roles but suggests that males are still subject to the female gaze. Goddard suggests that men s identifies are tied to the perception of what they think women expect of them. Overcoming gender stereotyping and gender-roles starts with the language that we use to describe the genders (Goddard, 2000). Some research has been conducted by retailers to effectively reach their target market. One such research study conducted on Chinese adolescent girls, is titled How Chinese adolescent girls perceive gender-roles: an psychographic study (Chan, Ng, 2013). The research study was developed to aid retailers marketing to 90 million adolescent female Chinese girls representing the largest population of girls ages 10 to 19. A cohort size of 331 Chinese adolescent females (median 15.3) participated in the study while studying in Shanghai. A majority of the participants responded with higher family income than the median per capita. The research was conducted by having the participants respond to a questionnaire that had 36 statements about gender-roles and identities, respond to six photos depicting female images, and questions about six international brands and six Chinese brands. The responses were scored and the participants were placed into one of four categories: Conformists (35.2%), Aggressive Pursuers (28.6%), Image Protectors (18.6%), and Single-handers (17.6%). The largest segment of responders were in the Conformist group which indicates the females valued family and marriage highly but valued a cute female image more than a homemaking image. The conclusion of this study is that adolescents of China still value traditional gender-roles (Chan, Ng 2013). 9

21 Imagine Interpretation and Visual Literacy Pictures can be interpreted by individuals differently. The associations that one has with an image can be vast and varied from one individual to another. The use of vague or stereotypical labels may also imply the importance of one image or gender over another. (Binns, Branch, 1995). In 1991, at Stockholm University, 25 students participated in a research study that evaluated the associations called to mind by images. The images generated approximately 3.2 associations per person per image. This is significant when using imagery to ensure that it is clearly explained to avoid misinterpretation (Pettersson, 1991). Visual Interpretation is based on the process of interpreting an image by balancing of the visual images outside of their body and their internal mental processes associated with the images. The author refers to this as bargaining (Dake,1995). Viewer Response Theory is called the reader response. This theory is less about the image or the object but about the viewer and their individual response to the image. It relies heavily on the interaction between the viewer and the image (Dake,1995). Visual Interpretation and Viewer Response both play a role in the research study that I will be conducting because the participants will be asked to process the images and assign gender to the artist of the piece. Another gender image study was conducted on medical journals titled Medical Journal Covers: An analysis of gendered images and how these might influence best practice (Coles, Phillips, Clearihan, Feldman, 2011). All forms of media, even medical magazines, can be a source of information about social expectations and stereotypes. The medical magazines give readers information about the values, beliefs and expectations of medicine today through their use of language, images and practices (Coles, Phillips, Clearihan, Feldman, 2011). The study examined 114 covers of two medical journals published in Canada and Australia for adult human images. 136 images were gender identifiable and used for 10

22 examination in this study. The results of the study indicated that, where gender was identifiable in the adult human images, the use of male and females was equal but the physicians were twice as likely to be depicted as male. Of the images of parents, females were depicted 71% of the time. Males were also twice as likely to be taking an active role in the images. This study shows a clear indication of how gender-role stereotypes are active in the images within all areas of our society (Coles, Phillips, Clearihan, Feldman, 2011). Television and advertisement is visual medium that can have an impact on our children. A research study completed by Jill Maher and Nancy Childs used content analysis to look at current children s advertising for the existence of gender stereotyping. Then they compared current advertising to those documented in previous studies done in 1994 for a longitudinal approach. They paid special attention to voice-over, dominant product user and main character of the advertisement. The concluded that ad orientation has changed to become more gender neutral. Dominant Product Usemale users were still more dominant than female users. Voice- Over- Males are more utilized as voiceovers, compared to females. Main Character- males dominated with 47% of the advertisements had a male main character (Maher, Childs, 2003). Children s literature also has the power to impact children s gender identity. In 1972 a study by Lenore Weitzman did an analysis on award winning picture books and found an absence of female characters. The males were valued for their accomplishment or being smart, and the females in the books were valued for their good looks. This study was replicated in 1997 by Kathleen Odean and, though she found more females in children s books, they took on more supportive roles. Only six hundred of the over four thousand children s books she looked at had female characters that were brave, athletic and independent, or going against feminine stereotypes (Renzetti, Curran, 2003). A similar visual research study was conducted examining the course books of English Language Teaching called Age, Gender and Social class in ELT Course books: A Critical Study (Arikan, 2005). This 11

23 study examines the course books (published in 1993 and 2003) of English Language Teaching to evaluate the photographs and images to look for how age, gender and social class are represented (Arikan, 2005). Teachers use images and visual material to help students learn words and concepts. Visualization is fundamental to human learning and much of the visual material is from course books. The values portrayed in the images may turn into stereotypical thinking which is the focus of the study on ELT course books (Arikan, 2005). In the two course books evaluated, the results clearly indicated an underrepresentation of women (29.80% Female versus 70.20% male). Along with the underrepresentation of women, gender separation and roles were clearly identified and maintained in the books. Women were portrayed raising children and men were head of household (Arikan, 2005). A Reader-Response Analysis of A Book from the sky (Ma, 1993) is a study in which researchers used reader-response theory to illicit responses from viewers through personal interviews and surveys. The researchers sought to examine the role that age, gender and profession played on the response of the viewer. The meaning of the art piece A book from the sky was different based on gender. Females seemed to praise the book for it s visual beauty in contrast to the males who were concerned with the concept of futility. The research also seemed to suggest that both males and females interpret meaning differently based on things they experience in their daily lives (Ma, 1993). The article examines the gender stereotyped and underrepresentation of women in clip-art. Images teach a person about what is socially acceptable behavior, how to dress, look and act can all be extracted from images in our lives. Individuals are constantly bombarded with images of gender-roles in our society. One of the researchers who sought to examine gender-roles was Sandra Lipsitz-Bem, Ph.D. with her Bem Sex-Role Inventory. I will use a modified version of her Social Desirability Questionnaire for this research study to determine the level of gender-role stereotypes in the participants. 12

24 Bem Sex-Role Inventory The Bem Sex-Role Inventory was created by Sandra Lipsitz Bem, Ph.D. in response to a growing effort to examine how individuals respond to cultural expectations of masculine or feminine traits. Researchers sought to identify the role that situational adaptability played in the self-reporting of individuals. Cultural desirability of traits is well-known for each gender but conformity to those traits in the individuals own behavior is what Dr. Bem sought to examine. The original inventory consisted of 60 items and took 15 minutes to administer. The inventory consisted of 20 stereotypical feminine personality characteristics, 20 stereotypical masculine personality characteristics and 20 characteristics that serve as filler items. The subject was given a 7-point Likert scale (1- Never or almost never to 7- Always or almost always) to identify how much that characteristic describes themselves. The inventory was scored by calculating the subjects femininity score and masculinity score which were averaged to calculate the subjects median femininity and masculinity scores. Subjects were classified into one of four categories on the basis of their median score on both the feminine and masculine scales. Subjects were labeled feminine if they were high feminine- low masculine, masculine (high masculine-low feminine, androgynous (high masculine-high feminine), or undifferentiated (low Masculine-low feminine) (Table 1). Table 1. Bem Masculinity/ Femininity Score Chart Femininity Score (Bem,1981 p.9) Below Median Above Median Below Median Undifferentiated (low-low) Feminine (high fem. - low masc.) Masculinity Score Above Median Masculine (low fem.- high masc.) Androgynous (high-high) The normative data was from a group of Stanford University undergraduate students (476 males and 340 females) in One of the limitations of the study was that the normative data was taken 13

25 from an elite professional college where many of the students, both male and female, had similar career aspirations, thus creating a smaller difference between the male and female masculine scores. To determine the personality characteristics used in the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, the researchers developed The Social Desirability Questionnaire. The questionnaire of 76 characteristics was used to select the feminine, masculine and filler personality characteristics. This questionnaire asked the subjects to rate the characteristics with a 7- point Likert scale (1- Not at all desirable to 7- Extremely desirable). The questionnaire sought to find out what American stereotypes about masculinity and femininity were. The subjects were to identify the desirability of the characteristics based on their judgment of American society, not their own personal opinion. The questionnaire was originally used in 1972 using 100 Stanford University undergraduates. After much debate about appropriate male and female behavior the study was replicated in 1977 with undergraduates at the University of Washington in The social desirability statements remained fairly stable across time and geographical locale (Bem, 1981). The characteristics qualified as feminine if they were judged by both male and females as being significantly more desirable for a female than for a male. The characteristics qualified as masculine if they were judged by both male and females as being significantly more desirable for males than females (Bem, 1981). Dr. Bem and her colleagues had found a way to reliably measure an individual s androgyny (or gender-role orientation) as masculine, feminine, androgynous and undifferentiated. Gender-role Stereotyping and Image Interpretation I found very few studies that aligned with my research. The closest study was a research study conducted at Western Carolina University s Department of Psychology that investigated gender stereotypes by using 13 drawings of animal characters (elephants and pigs), drawn with no clues as to gender. The sample included 35 undergraduates (23 women and 12 men) (White, Morris & Arthur, 1995). 14

26 The participants were asked to make up stories about each drawing and to provide names of the animals in the pictures. When necessary, they were asked the gender of the character (White, Morris & Arthur, 1995). Of the animals drawn as children, 38.8% were considered male by the participants. Of the animals drawn as adult 81.4% were considered female. The children animals were participating in activities such as playing with blocks, playing in the sandbox, playing with toy train, playing ball and having a tea party. The animals in the tea party considered, a stereotypical female situation, was labeled as male by 48.6% of the participants. The adult animals were engaging in activities such as bandaging a child, talking to a child who was painting, holding a baby and hanging clothes (White, Morris & Arthur, 1995). The results of this study imply that undergraduate students applied rigid gender-role stereotypes to their interpretations of the images of animals. The children were viewed as males, and the adults were viewed as females (White, Morris & Arthur, 1995). Another closely related study was conducted by Robertson, Johnson and Benton called What s in a Picture? Comparing Gender Constructs of Younger and Older Adults (Robertson, Johnson and Benton, 2002). The research study conducted with 192 young adults (M age = 21.1) and 126 older adults (M age =70.1) to identify gender-role constructs through the use of six drawings. The drawings were unrelated to gender and the participants were asked open ended questions unrelated to gender. What words would you use to describe the person who made this drawing? You may consider anything that comes to mind personality traits, interests, physical appearance, typical behavior whatever seems relevant to you (Robertson, Johnson and Benton, 2002). The conclusion of this study suggests that there is intergenerational agreement between younger and older adults about what is considered to be stereotypical femininity and masculinity, suggesting that gender-role stereotypes have remained relatively stagnant over the last 30+ years. 15

27 Summary There are very few studies that combine gender-role stereotypes and image interpretation. The literature is vast in both areas, but is currently not connected. My research will add to the existing research on gender-role stereotypes and image interpretation. My study looks at the intersection of the two areas and will contribute to what is currently available. This study will focus primarily on the interpretation of gendered symbols in artwork. 16

28 METHODOLOGY The purpose of this study is to determine if gender-role stereotypes in Generation Z (People born between ) affects the way they see and interpret symbols in artwork. This study will add to the existing literature about gender in art, society and gender-role stereotyping and image interpretation. Design I am using a survey design with both closed and open-ended questions. Data was analyzed with a combination of both quantitative and qualitative approaches. The quantitative data will determine the level of gender-role stereotyping the participants have by giving them a modified version of The Social Desirability Questionnaire. The qualitative data will determine if there are themes in the way that students interpret artwork based on the degree of gender-role stereotypes they have based on the score they received on The Social Desirability Questionnaire. I chose these approaches because I m seeking to identify if gender stereotypes affect the way that participants view images and interpret them. All data was collected during the Fall 2014 semester. I collected data from two different samples. Sample A included participants who were students at the University of Iowa. Sample B included participants who were students at a private Catholic high school in the Iowa City, Iowa. Settings Participants from both samples were attending school in Iowa City, Iowa. Iowa City, Iowa is located in the mid-west part of the United States. The population for Iowa City was 70,000 in The median resident age was The estimated household income was $41, In 2012, 20% of the Iowa City population was a minority. For the population that is 15 years and older, 53.7% have never been married. 37% of the population is affiliated with a religious congregation; 41 % of those are 17

29 affiliated with the Catholic Church. Approximately 65% of the voting population is affiliated with the Democratic Party (Iowa City Data, n.d.). Participants in sample A were undergraduates attending a public university located in Iowa City, Iowa. The population of the university is approximately 30,000 students; approximately 22,000 of those students are undergraduates. The student body is made up of 12% minorities. The campus has a balanced male to female ratio. The percentage of students that are Iowa residents is 55 percent with the remaining 45 percent coming from other states and countries. Over 80 percent of the students are enrolled full-time (University of Iowa website, n.d.). Sample A setting was a small lecture classroom with stadium seating on the University of Iowa campus in Iowa City, Iowa. The classroom was equipped with a computer and projector. Sample B is from a private Catholic high school located in Iowa City, Iowa. The student population is around 419 students. Students are required to pay a tuition fee, though some students may qualify for scholarships, so a majority of the students are from upper middle-class households. About 98% of these students pursue higher education (Regina Website, n.d. ). The class sizes are small and many of the students have been together since kindergarten. 95% of the school population participates in some form of extracurricular activity (Regina Website, n.d.). Students are given many educational opportunities along with the Gospel s message. The high school consistently ranks among the best in the county and state on standardized tests (Regina Website, n.d.). The survey was administered in a large high school art classroom. The samples were selected for convenient access to a Generation Z participant pool. The two samples will allow me to look over a span of 10 years of age difference among the participants; this allows me to determine if age is a factor in my study about gender-role stereotypes and image interpretation in future research or longevity studies. 18

30 Access to a participant pool was easily managed because of my work and affiliation with both institutions. The Sample A provides a perspective of those Generation Z participants who were born on or before 1996; Sample B participants will provide the Generation Z participants who were born on or after This study received an IRB Exempt status due to no risk or benefits for the participants in the study. Sample Characteristics Sample A is from undergraduate students enrolled and present for the lecture portion of the course Create, Imagine, Play, Human Development in Arts during Fall Semester This course was established for undergraduate students studying education. The course is part of the Elementary Education curriculum. Most of the individuals in the course are seeking education degrees, but a few students are taking the course as a university elective with varied majors. The Sample A size is 66 participants that include mostly White women and men. The ratio of women to men in Sample A is 63:3. The year of birth range of the Sample A was born between , which means they were between the ages of 24 and 18. Sample B is from high school students enrolled in art classes during the Fall Semester The sample was taken from the six art classes during the course of one day. The Sample B size is 80 participants that include mostly White women and men. The ratio of women to men in Sample B is 36:43, and one missing response on gender. The year of birth range of Sample B was between , which means they were between the ages of 14 and 18. The total sample consists of 146 participants, 100 females, 45 males and one no-response. Data Collection Procedures Sample A data was collected from the students present at the Create, Imagine Play, Human Development in the Arts during an October Monday afternoon lecture class. The classroom was a small 19

31 lecture classroom with stadium seating on the University of Iowa campus. The classroom was equipped with a computer and projector. The same procedure was used for Sample A and Sample B, with Sample B taking place inside the high school art classroom. The participants were informed they would be taking a survey administered by one of the graduate students in Art Education. The surveys were stapled together with Survey 1 (identification of the gender of artist) on the top, and the Survey 2 (standardized gender-role stereotyping scale) on the bottom. The surveys were handed out to the students and directions were given. The students were told they would be presented briefly with 15 images, and they would be asked to complete the survey indicating the gender of the artist and write a brief description about why they felt the gender was either male or female. After the slideshow of images the participants were asked to complete the The Social Desirability Questionnaire. Measures Two surveys were used to collect data from the participants. Survey One: Identification of Artists Gender and Rationale The first survey was used to collect qualitative data (Appendix A- Artist Gender Survey). The survey had 15 questions that asked the participants to select a gender for the artist of 15 images of artwork. Options were either male or female for the gender of the artist and the participants were asked to circle one gender for each image. Below the question about the gender of the artist, the participants were asked to give a brief description of why they felt the artist was either male or female. Fifteen images were shown with the projector for the participants to see. Each image was presented and shown for about 30 seconds. Then the image was taken away and a white slide was shown for the remainder of 30 seconds until the next slide was presented. All times were approximate and not timed. The process of showing the slides briefly was to allow the participants to respond with their initial reactions and response. I did not want to allow them time to analyze the photo during this 20

32 process. Calling out of the slide and image number was done to keep the students on track. The overall time to complete Survey 1 was approximately 20 minutes. Selection of Artwork A slide show of images (Appendix C- List of Images) was presented to the participants and each image was selected for the male and female symbolism. Artwork was selected with the intention that the students would have to make an unconscious choice about which symbolism in the images was more powerful, the masculine or the feminine symbols or attributes. No mention of symbolism or attributes was made to the students, students were simply asked to provide a reason for assigning the gender to the artist. Students were not told which symbols/ attributes were masculine or feminine, or whether the artwork was completed by a man or a woman. (See Appendix C- List of Images) Artist Gender, Artist Name, Date of Creation, Title of Artwork 1. (Male) Wood, Grant. (1932). Daughters of the American Revolution. 2. (Male) David, Jacque Louis. (1784). The Oath of Horatii. 3. (Male) Fresquet, Jose Gomez. (1970). La modelo y la vietnamita. 4. (Male) Fogel, Seymour. (1942). The Security of the People. 5. (Male) Henri De Toulouse- Lautrec. (1894). In the Salon at Rue des Moulins 6. (Female) Buset, Elizabeth. (2011). Gender-roles. 7. (Male) Kocks, Andreas. (2007). Paperwork #701G (in the beginning). 8. (Male) Steen, Jan. (1665). Life of Man. 9. (Female) Rrap, Julie. (2001). Overstepping. 10. (Female) Peeters, Clara. (1615). Still Life with Cheeses, Almonds and Pretzels 11. (Male) Lhote, Andre. (1913). Port of Call. 12. (Female) VigeeLe-Brunn, Elizabeth Louise. (1786). Self-Portrait of Her Daughter, Julie. 21

33 13. (Female) Jablonska, Elzbieta. (2002). Super Mother. 14. (Female) Dill, Lesley. (1994). Dada Poem Wedding Dress. 15. (Female) Spencer, Lilly Martin. (1822). War Spirit at Home. Each image was selected for how the image conveyed gender-roles, for whether it included masculine and/or feminine symbolism, and for whether it included conflicting masculine and feminine symbols. I wanted some of the images to be obscure on gender, to make the participant question if the piece was by a male or female artist. A good example of an image that has conflicting symbols is Jose Gomez Fresquet s serigraphic print La model y la vietnamita (Appendix C- List of Images). The image has four distinct colors: black, white, yellow and red. The four colors are used to create contrast in the print. There are no value changes in the color. This stark contrast in colors would suggest that the print was created by a male because men are associated with strong contrasting colors but the content, of a women applying lipstick in a bright red shade, would suggest that the artist may be a female. The content of Elizabeth Buset s Gender-roles painting is of a handgun, but the handgun is pastel pink with Barbie written on the side. Again, here the gender content and the colors are conflicting, but in this image, I didn t expect the participants to have much trouble distinguishing the powerful gender symbolism. I also selected two images that were on different ends of the non-conflicting traditional gender-roles and conflicting gender-role spectrum to see if the participants notice the subtle details that make the image consistent on gender-roles and one image that is conflicting on gender-roles. In Seymour Fogel s mural The Security of the People (Appendix C- List of Images), it depicts an ideal family with the father reading the paper, the mother in a traditional care giving role with a baby on her hip. The son is playing sports (tennis), and the daughter is doing a more sedentary activity like studying or drawing. In contrast, I included a painting by Lilly Martin Spencer titled War Spirit at Home. The image depicts a woman in her traditional care giving role, but, in this image, the mother is now the one reading the newspaper. 22

34 The newspaper is significant because some women were illiterate and were unable to read the paper. reading was considered a more masculine thing to do. I did select one image that was a satire by a famous local artist, Grant Wood. I felt that this painting, Daughters of the American Revolution, would give me some insight into the amount of art education the participant had received. In Iowa, students gain a great deal of knowledge about Grant Wood because he is a local icon. The knowledge of art was a control, if the student was knowledgeable in art; they are more likely to accurately identify the gender of artist regardless of the symbols. Survey Two: The Social Desirability Questionnaire The second survey (The Social Desirability Questionnaire) was used to collect quantitative data (Appendix B- The Social Desirability Questionnaire). Survey 2 was modeled after The Social Desirability Questionnaire (Bem, 1981). The purpose of this survey was to determine the participant s level of gender-role stereotypes. I will also use this data to determine if Generation Z stereotype data differs from the data collected in 1971 to answer the question: Do Generation Z from The Social Desirability Questionnaire report less gender-role stereotyping than the generation 43 years ago? The Bem Sex-Role inventory was initially published in the Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology in 1974 (Bem, 1981). The survey was first used in 1978 at Stanford University. I will be using the data from the Stanford study to compare to the results that I received from the participants in this study. The survey is used to determine if the participant has gender-role stereotypes and to what degree. The Bem Sex- Role Inventory has been primarily used with college students. Though there is a shorter version of the Bem Sex-role inventory, research by the developer has found that the longer survey (the same survey used in this study) was more effective at predicting behavior. The original Bem Sex-role inventory had the participants rate themselves on a 7 point scale, ranging from 1 (not at all desirable) to 7 (extremely desirable). 23

35 To determine the personal characteristics used in the Bem Sex-Role Inventory the researchers developed The Social Desirability Questionnaire. The questionnaire includes 76 characteristics used to select the feminine, masculine and filler personality characteristics. This questionnaire measures stereotypes about masculinity and femininity. The respondents rated the desirability of the characteristics based on their judgment of American society, not their own personal opinion. The questionnaire was originally used in 1972 using 100 Stanford University undergraduates. After much debate about appropriate male and female behavior the study was replicated in 1977 with undergraduates at the University of Washington. The social desirability of masculine and feminine characteristics has remained fairly stable across time and geographical locale. (Bem, 1981) The characteristics qualified as feminine if they were judged by both male and females as being significantly more desirable for a female than for a male. The characteristics qualified as masculine if they were judged by both male and females as being significantly more desirable for males than females (Bem, 1981). The survey prompted the participant to respond to each characteristic using this sentence: We would like you to indicate how desirable it is to you for a man to possess each of these characteristics. We want your judgment of how you evaluate each of these characteristics in a man. (Appendix B- The Social Desirability Questionnaire) The 60 characteristics were listed in alphabetical order. Twenty of the words were masculine, 20 words were feminine and 20 words were filler words. Examples of feminine words are gentle and feminine. Examples of masculine words would be competitive and masculine. Examples of Filler words are sincere and tactful. (Reference B- Social Desirability Questionnairefor a complete list of the words) 24

36 DATA ANALYSIS All quantitative data was entered into an SPSS data base. The data base had 78 variables for each of the 146 participants in this study. All qualitative data was entered into an Excel spreadsheet and grouped based on image number, artist gender and gender of participant. The results were compiled in SPSS and Excel spreadsheets for analysis. The complete results for research questions 1a.-1c. can be found in Appendix E- S- Artist Gender Survey Results, where a complete list of the survey responses have been complied for each slide. Included in the results will be each image and a table that shows the gender assignment for each slide. 1a. Do participants identify symbolism? And, if yes, what is the symbolism they identify in the artwork that is related to their attribution of being a male or female artist? 1b.What will be the strongest perceived symbols in the artwork? 1c. Does the gender of the participant matter? 2. Does Generation Z report less gender-role stereotyping on The Social Desirability Questionnaire than the generation 43 years ago? The complete results for research question 2 and The Social Desirability Questionnaire can be found in the Results section under The Social Desirability Questionnaire. The primary focuses on the Masculine Characteristics Results because the questionnaire administered to the participants of this study only asked about the desirability in a male. 2. Does Generation Z from The Social Desirability Questionnaire report less gender-role stereotyping than the generation 43 years ago? 25

37 RESULTS Figure 1. (Male) Wood, Grant. (1932). Daughters of the American Revolution. Table 2. SLIDE 1 GENDER Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Male Valid Female Total Missing Total This image by Grant Wood was incorrectly labeled 51.7% of the time with a majority of the participants indicated that because it was an image of three women and the presence of the tea cup identified the scene with a tea party. Those who thought the image was created by a male (48.3%) sited the manly or masculine facial features of the women and the image of war in the background. Three individuals either identified Grant Wood by name or the image likening itself to his other works. 26

38 Figure 2. (Male) David, Jacque Louis. (1784). The Oath of Horatii. Table 3. SLIDE 2 GENDER Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Male Valid Female Total Missing Total This image by Jacque Louis David was identified correctly 91.7% of the time. The participants identified with the images of the swords and the perceived violence or battle. The women cowering in the background further reinforced the image as a masculine one. Those who thought the image was created by a female (8.3%) were mostly women and identified it as female because of the brighter colors. 27

39 Figure 3. (Male) Fresquet, Jose Gomez. (1970). La modelo y la vietnamita. Table 4. SLIDE 3 GENDER Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Male Valid Female Total Missing Total This image by Jose Gomez Fresquet was 74.3% of the time mislabeled as by a female artist. The most significant symbol in this image was the lipstick. The image has two female faces in it which also lead people to believe it was created by a woman. Those who thought this image was created by a male (25.7%) believed so because of the blood and violence. The colors were also identified a reason for the image to be more masculine. 28

40 Figure 4. (Male) Fogel, Seymour. (1942). The Security of the People. Table 5. SLIDE 4 GENDER Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Male Valid Female Total Missing Total This image by Seymour Fogel was also incorrectly identified as created by a female artist. 64.8% of the participants thought this image was created by a female, many of the participants identifying the image with a female artist because of the family scene. Many people mentioned the women holding the baby was significant to their decision. 31 out of the 45 (68.9%) males in the study believed this image to be created by a female with most of the males identifying the women with the baby or the maternal responsibility. The high percentage of the male participants who believed the image was by a female is significant; it may say something about the values of males in our society. Those who identified the image as created by a male (35.2%) had a large array of reasons but some themes arose such as traditional gender-roles of a family, as well as, the colors and style of the painting. 29

41 Figure 5. (Male) Toulouse- Lautrec, Henri De (1894). In the Salon at Rue des Moulins Table 6. SLIDE 5 GENDER Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Male Valid Female Total Missing Total This image by Henri De Toulouse-Lautrec was also incorrectly identified as a female image by 66.0% of participants. The primary symbols that led participants to believe that the painting was created by a female were the subjects of the painting being all women. 34 of the 45 (75.6%) males thought this image was created by a female artist. The high percentage of the male participants who believed the image was by a female is significant; it may say something about the values of males in our society. Those participants who thought that the painting was by a male (34.0%) thought the women were dressed provocatively and presented in a sexualized way. 30

42 Figure 6. (Female) Buset, Elizabeth. (2011). Gender-roles. Table 7. SLIDE 6 GENDER Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Male Valid Female Total Missing Total The pink Barbie gun by Elizabeth Buset was correctly identified 77.9% of the time by participants with the primary identifying characteristic being the Barbie logo on the gun. Those individuals who thought the image was created by a male artist (22.1%) identified the gun as the primary symbolism in the image. A small handful of individuals thought that it was created by a male artist as a joke or to make fun of women. 31

43 Figure 7. (Male) Kocks, Andreas. (2007). Paperwork #701G (in the beginning). Table 8. SLIDE 7 GENDER Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Male Valid Female Total Missing Total The sculpture piece by Andreas Kocks was identified correctly 80.0% of the time as created by a male artist. The symbol in the image that participants identified for their selection of a male artist was the dark colors of the piece. The participants that thought the image was created by a female artist (22.0%) didn t have any themes in their response even though two thought the image looked almost flower like. 32

44 Figure 8. (Male) Steen, Jan. (1665). Life of Man. Table 9. SLIDE 8 GENDER Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Male Valid Female Total Missing Total The domestic image by Jan Steel was incorrectly identified 55.2% of the time by participants and 35 of the 46 (76%) males thought this image was created by a female artist. Many of the male participants thought it was created by a female because of the amount of women in the image, the attention to detail and color choices. Those who thought the image was created by a male artist (44.8%) identified it as older and deducted that more artists were male at that time. 33

45 Figure 9. (Female) Rrap, Julie. (2001). Overstepping. Table 10. SLIDE 9 GENDER Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Male Valid Female Total Missing Total The digital image by Julie Rrap was correctly identified 75.0% of the time by participants as being a female artist because of the high heels symbol. Those participants who felt the artist was male (25.0%) thought it was a man depicting a women and a man was mocking women. Others thought the image was weird and gross and thus created by a male artist. 34

46 Figure 10. (Female) Peeters, Clara. (1615). Still Life with Cheeses, Almonds and Pretzels Table 11. SLIDE 10 GENDER Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Male Valid Female Total Missing Total This image of food by Clara Peeters was incorrectly identified as being created by a male artist 81.6% of the time by participants. The food was the biggest theme in this image; there was even some discussion about the type of food being hearty and thus consumed more by males. Males were associated with food and liking food. The dark colors and the perceived age of the image were an important factor in some participants choosing the artist to be male. Those participants who thought the artist was a female (18.4%) identified the food with an association to women cooking and in the kitchen. 35

47 Figure 11. (Male) Lhote, Andre. (1913). Port of Call. Table 12. SLIDE 11 GENDER Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Male Valid Female Total Missing Total The image by Andre Lhote was incorrectly identified as female 51.0% of the time. The primary theme among those who felt the image was by a female artist was the subjects were all female. Those participants who thought the image was male, 13 of them mention Picasso as either being the artist or the inspiration for the cubist style of the piece. The other participants who identified this painting as being by a male artist (49%) felt the image was provocative and the women were sexualized. 36

48 Figure 12. (Female) VigeeLe-Brunn, Elizabeth (1786). Self-Portrait of Her Daughter, Julie. Table 13. SLIDE 12 GENDER Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Male Valid Female Total Missing Total This image by Elizabeth Louise Vigeele-Brunn was correctly identified as female 68% of the time. The primary theme for the justification was the maternal image of the mother and child. Another smaller theme was the soft and delicate nature of the painting. Those participants who thought the image was male (31.7%), thought it was a painting of his wife and child during a time period where many artists were males. 37

49 Figure 13. (Female) Jablonska, Elzbieta. (2002). Super Mother. Table 14. SLIDE 13 GENDER Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Male Valid Female Total Missing Total This self-portrait of Elzbieta Jablonska was correctly identified 53.8% of the time by participants. The image was identified as an empowerment to women and identifying mothers as superheroes. Some associated the image with a feminist message. Those who thought the image was created by a male artist (46.2%) identified the symbolism of the superman costume. Some participants speculated that the photo was taken by the husband and father of the subjects. Many of the participants sighted that absence of a man subject in the image. 38

50 Figure 14. (Female) Dill, Lesley. (1994). Dada Poem Wedding Dress. Table 15. SLIDE 14 GENDER Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Male Valid Female Total Missing Total The dress called Dada Poem Wedding Dress by Lesley Dill was correctly identified as created by a female artist 88.2% of the time. The symbolism that most individuals identified for assigning a female artist to this piece was the dress. Female artist were identified with fashion. One male participant who identified the artist as male (11.8%) did so because they felt artsy fashion was more associated with male artists. 39

51 Figure 15. (Female) Spencer, Lilly Martin. (1822). War Spirit at Home. Table 16. SLIDE 15 GENDER Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Male Valid Female Total Missing Total This painting by Lilly Martin Spencer was incorrectly identified as created by a male artist by 52.8 % of the participants because of the dark color and the perceived age of the painting being during a time of mostly male artists. Other themes were that the man was painting what he saw or the role of women. Those who believed the female (47.2%) painted the image identified the maternal and family theme of the painting. 40

52 Table 17. Summary of Qualitative Results Image Number Artist Name Artist Gender % Incorrectly Identified Grant Wood Male 51.7 Jacque Louis David Jose Gomez Fresquet Seymour Fogel Henri De Toulousse- Lautrec Elizabeth Buset Andreas Kocks Male 8.3 Male 74.3 Male 64.8 If artist is male then masculine facial features/ image of war swords, violence/ women cowering blood/ violence/ colors traditional gender-roles/ colors/ style Male 66.0 provocatively dressed women/ sexualized Female 22.1 Male 20.0 Jan Steen Male 55.2 Julie Rrap Female 25.0 Clara Peeters Female 81.6 Andre Lhote Male 51.0 Elizabeth Louise VigeeLe-Bunn Gun/ Joke about women dark colors older painting (more male painters) mock of women/ depicting women/ weird/ gross hearty food/ dark colors/older painting Picasso/ cubist style/ provocative women Symbols If artist is female then three women/ tea cup bright colors lipstick/ female faces family scene/ women holding baby women Barbie logo/ pink color looks like flower women/ attention to detail/ color high heels food/ cooking women Female 31.7 his wife and child/ older Mother and child/ soft 12 painting and delicate nature empowerment of Elzbieta women/ mother's as Female 46.2 Jablonska superman costume/ taken superhero/ feminist 13 by husband/ no man message 14 Lesley Dill Female 11.8 artsy fashion Fashion/ dress Lilly Martin dark colors/ older painting/ maternal and family Female Spencer role of women theme 41

53 Social Desirability Questionnaire The results of the Social Desirability Questionnaire showed a significant difference in the masculine data between the 1972 scores collected by the Sandra Lipsitz Bem (Bem, 1981) study and those of the data collected in There appears to be a decrease in the expectations of the males in our society to have the stereotypical masculine characteristics. The feminine characteristics increased in the desirability of being present in males in our society. The negative filler characteristics had a decrease or little change over time but the positive filler items had an increase in desirability. Table 18. Masculine Characteristics Results Characteristics- Masculine All Judges 1972 Sample of 100 undergraduates at Stanford University All Judges 2014 Sample of 146 undergraduate and high school students in Iowa Acts as a leader Mean S.D. (1.10) (1.14) 0.04 Aggressive Mean S.D. (1.31) (1.85) 0.54 Ambitious Mean S.D. (0.97) (1.33) 0.36 Analytical Mean S.D. (1.24) (1.50) 0.26 Assertive Mean S.D. (1.23) (1.53) 0.30 Athletic Mean S.D. (1.23) (1.60) 0.37 Competitive Mean S.D. (1.23) (1.56) 0.33 Defends own beliefs Mean S.D. (0.98) (1.35)

54 Characteristics- Masculine (continued) All Judges 1972 Sample of 100 undergraduates at Stanford University All Judges 2014 Sample of 146 undergraduate and high school students in Iowa Dominant Mean S.D. (1.06) (1.87) 0.81 Forceful Mean S.D. (1.25) (1.90) 0.65 Has leadership abilities Mean S.D. (1.02) (1.22) 0.20 Independent Mean S.D. (1.09) (1.29) 0.20 Individualistic Mean S.D. (1.27) (1.48) 0.21 Makes decisions easily Mean S.D. (1.25) (1.29) 0.04 Masculine Mean S.D. (0.77) (1.35) 0.58 Self-reliant Mean S.D. (0.94) (1.59) 0.65 Self-sufficient Mean S.D. (1.25) (1.48) 0.23 Strong personality Mean S.D. (0.83) (1.40) 0.57 Willing to take a stand Mean S.D. (0.89) (1.20) 0.31 Willing to take risks Mean S.D. (0.95) (1.34)

55 Table 19. Feminine Characteristics Results Characteristics- Feminine All Judges 1972 Sample of 100 undergraduates at Stanford University All Judges 2014 Sample of 146 undergraduate and high school students in Iowa Affectionate Mean S.D. (1.47) (1.76) 0.29 Cheerful Mean S.D. (1.24) (1.50) 0.26 Compassionate Mean S.D. (1.39) (1.62) 0.23 Does not use harsh language Mean S.D. (1.37) (2.03) 0.66 Eager to sooth hurt feelings Mean S.D. (1.53) (1.87) 0.34 Feminine Mean S.D. (0.58) (1.41) 0.83 Flatterable Mean S.D. (1.66) (1.70) 0.04 Gentle Mean S.D. (1.40) (1.70) 0.30 Gullible Mean S.D. (1.40) (1.56) 0.16 Loves Children Mean S.D. (1.33) (1.66) 0.33 Sensitive to the needs of others Mean S.D. (1.30) (1.74) 0.44 Shy Mean S.D. (1.15) (1.32)

56 Characteristics- Feminine (Continued) All Judges 1972 Sample of 100 undergraduates at Stanford University All Judges 2014 Sample of 146 undergraduate and high school students in Iowa Soft-spoken Mean S.D. (1.28) (1.57) 0.29 Sympathetic Mean S.D. (1.19) (1.64) 0.45 Tender Mean S.D. (1.39) (1.76) 0.37 Understanding Mean S.D. (1.28) (1.42) 0.14 Warm Mean S.D. (1.27) (1.65) 0.38 Yielding Mean S.D. (1.41) (1.67)

57 Table 20. Filler Characteristics Results Characteristics- Filler All Judges 1972 Sample of 100 undergraduates at Stanford University All Judges 2014 Sample of 146 undergraduate and high school students in Iowa Adaptable Mean S.D. (1.05) (1.35) 0.30 Conscientious Mean S.D. (1.18) (1.76) 0.58 Conventional Mean S.D. (1.53) (1.50) Friendly Mean S.D. (0.95) (1.52) 0.57 Happy Mean S.D. (1.14) (1.29) 0.15 Helpful Mean S.D. (0.93) (1.36) 0.43 Inefficient Mean S.D. (0.50) (1.48) 0.98 Jealous Mean S.D. (1.33) (1.35) 0.02 Likable Mean S.D. (1.14) (1.31) 0.17 Moody Mean S.D. (0.98) (1.53) 0.55 Reliable Mean S.D. (0.89) (1.27) 0.38 Secretive Mean S.D. (1.13) (1.45)

58 Characteristics- Filler (Continued) All Judges 1972 Sample of 100 undergraduates at Stanford University All Judges 2014 Sample of 146 undergraduate and high school students in Iowa Sincere Mean S.D. (1.07) (1.75) 0.68 Solemn Mean S.D. (1.13) (1.62) 0.49 Tactful Mean S.D. (1.07) (1.61) 0.54 Truthful Mean S.D. (1.00) (1.24) 0.24 Theatrical Mean S.D. (1.25) (1.61) 0.36 Truthful Mean S.D. (1.00) (1.24) 0.24 Unpredictable Mean S.D. (1.59) (1.78) 0.19 Unsystematic Mean S.D. (0.92) (1.56)

59 DISCUSSION Summary Research Questions: 1a. Do participants identify symbolism? And, if yes, what is the symbolism they identify in the artwork that is related to their attribution of being a male or female artist? 1b.What will be the strongest perceived symbols in the artwork? 1c. Does the gender of the participant matter? Almost all the participants identified symbolism in the artwork related to their attribution of the artist being male or female. The strongest symbols in the artwork appeared to be the colors and the gender of the subject. Gender of the participant seemed to matter when the participants identified symbolism. Male participants identified different symbols than female participants. The male participants identified the subject of the painting to help determine the artist of the artwork, whereas, females will focus on the details or the shades of the colors. Research Question 2: Does Generation Z report less gender-role stereotyping on The Social Desirability Questionnaire than the generation 43 years ago? Generation Z participants in this research study did report less gender-role stereotyping or at least a movement towards more neutral desirability of both stereotypical masculine and feminine characteristics in males from the results of The Social Desirability Questionnaire. Even though the Social Desirability Questionnaire reported less gender-role stereotyping the narratives provided by the participants attributing one gender or another to an artist and the symbolism showed clear gender-role stereotyping. The narratives were much more candid than I had anticipated. Responses to Grant Wood s painting described the female s faces as masculine or the features of the women were not very desirable (Figure 1- (Male) Wood, Grant. (1932). Daughters of the American Revolution). The response A woman might have created this because she was observing her kitchen was received from a female participant in response to the painting by Clara Peters (Figure 10- (Female) Peeters, Clara. (1615). Still Life with Cheeses, Almonds and Pretzels). 48

60 Limitations Some of the limitation of this survey is that my sample was 2:1 female to male. The absence of a larger male population doesn t allow a clear picture of Generation Z and the population as a whole. Also, my sample was taken from a rural community in the Midwest which limited the diversity. To be more generalizable, future studies would need a more representative population from participants from all over the world. When conducting research at the high school, I administered the survey over the course of an entire day to six class periods. This time span allowed for the participants an opportunity to discuss the survey with other students taking the survey later that day. However, this didn t appear to have any significant effect on the results. I only gave the participants a Social Desirability Questionnaire for the desirability of the characteristics in a man. To have more holistic results of the state of gender-role stereotyping in the population I should have also administered a questionnaire asking about the desirability of the characteristics in women. Not all of the words in the Social Desirability Questionnaire were easily identifiable by the high school students. I was asked to define conscious, flatterable, eager to sooth, conventional and solemn. Implications for Future Research and Education The data collected during this research study could be used to look at the individual students to see if students who score higher on gender-role stereotyping are less likely to accurately attribute the correct gender to the artwork. Little research has been done on the affect of gender-role stereotyping on our behaviors and the way that we see the world. The participants in my research study made a lot of claims about the artwork based on prior information they had about genders. Research could be done to look at the validity of their claims and the artistic behaviors of male and female artists. 49

61 Implication for Art Education Gender is such a big part of our daily lives it s no surprise that it shows up in the art classroom. The art classroom can be a place of development of gender identity and gender-roles. As educators, we need to be aware of how gender-role stereotypes affects the way that students view the world and what images are presented to them with in the classroom. We need to teach children how visual images affect their attitudes and bias. We need to discuss and dispel stereotypes which appear in popular culture and visual media (Couch, 1994). In comparison to written text, a visual contains an infinite amount of information (Pettersson, 1985). There are times when art is made for art s sake to be a beautifully aesthetic object but many times the artist is telling a story or has a message he/she is trying to convey to the viewers. Artists are sometimes trying to elicit a response or a dialogue. Art needs to be taught in a way that helps students to understand the context of the work from a historical and cultural perspective. The historical and cultural perspectives are so important to interpreting and understanding a piece of artwork, especially the history of women and men throughout history. Gender-role stereotyping may never completely be eradicated from our society but students with more knowledge may be able to attribute the gender of a piece of art correctly with the knowledge about the historical and cultural information that will give students clues about the story of the artwork. One of the ways that we interpret artwork is through our personal beliefs and values. Artwork also reflects the values of society and culture, sometimes even reinforcing gender stereotypes. Art educators can evaluate how students values and beliefs determine how they will interpret an image. Art educators need to be ready to address the values and beliefs of their students and of society to generate discussions about how each student can view the same piece of artwork and interpret the message differently. Students should be exposed to the values and beliefs within a historical context and a cultural perspective. The history of both male and female artists needs to be taught, as well as the 50

62 relationship between the two genders. When student s have a critical way to view artwork and images, they are more likely to understand when subliminal messages are being sent to them through the images in popular culture. Teaching students to critically evaluate images is an essential role of the art educator. Art educators need to look at art curriculum and ensure that we are sharing a variety of images by both male and female artists. It is important to remember that social gender expectations can be reflected in our language and imagery. We need to be aware of our own biases; sometimes what we aren t talking about or teaching is as important as what we are. 51

63 CONCLUSION The results of this study indicate that gender-role stereotyping was demonstrated by most of the participants in this study. This was observed through the written narratives providing reasons for attributing the artwork to a male or female artist. However, the modified Social Desirability Questionnaire indicated that there has been a decline since 1972 in gender-role stereotypes for males. In conclusion, although a direct relationship between the variables cannot be concluded from this study, there does appear to be a relationship between the gender of the participant and the presence of gender role stereotyping. There also appears to be a relationship between the way in which the artwork was viewed and the symbolism ascribed to it. 52

64 REFERENCES Anderson, D., Hamilton, M. (2005). Gender-Role Stereotyping of Parents in Children s Picture Books: The Invisible Father. New York, NY: Sex Roles: Springer Science + Business and Media, Inc. Arikan, A. (2005). Age, Gender and Social Class in ELT Coursebooks: A Critical Study. Hacettepe Universitesi Egitim Fakultesi Dergisi 28: [2005] Baker, K., Raney, A. (2007). Equally Super?: Gender-Role Stereotyping of Superheroes in Children s Animated Programs. Tallahassee, FL: Mass Communication & Society Bem, S. (1981). Bem Sex-Role Inventory Professional Manual. Palo Alto, CA. Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc. Binns, J., Branch,R. (1995). Gender Stereotyped Computer Clip-Art Images as an Implicit Influence in Instructional Message Design. Selected Readings from the Annual Conference of the International Visual Literacy Association (26 th, Tempe, Arizona, October 12-16, 1994). Buset, Elizabeth. (2011). Gender-roles. Retrieved from Chadwick, Whitney. (2012). Women, Art and Society. New York, NY: Thame and Hudson Inc. Chan, K., Ng, Y. (2013). How Chinese adolescent girls perceive gender-roles: a psychographic study. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 30/1, (2013), City-Data.com. (n.d.). Iowa City, Iowa. Retrieved from Coles J., Phillips, S., Clearihan, L., Feldman,K. (2011). Medical Journal Covers: An analysis of gendered images and how these influence best practice. Australian Family Physician Vol 40, No.9, September Couch, R. (1995). Gender Equality and Visual Literacy: Schools Can Help Change Perceptions. Selected Readings from the Annual Conference of the International Visual Literacy Association (26 th, Tempe, Arizona, October 12-16, 1994). Crisp, T., Hiller, B. (2011). Is this a Boy or a Girl? : Rethinking Sex-Role Representation in Caldecott Medal-Winning Picturebooks, Children s Literature in Education (2011) 42: DOI /s Dake, D. (1995). Process Issues in Visual Literacy. Selected Readings from the Annual Conference of the International Visual Literacy Association (26 th, Tempe, Arizona, October 12-16, 1994). David, Jacque Louis. (1784). The Oath of Horatii. Retrieved from 53

65 Dill, Lesley. (1994). Dada Poem Wedding Dress. Retrieved From Fogel, Seymour. (1942). The Security of the People. Retrieved from Fresquet, Jose Gomez. (1970). La modelo y la vietnamita. Retrieved from Goddard, K. (2000). Looks Maketh the Man The Female Gaze and Construction of Masculinity. Men s Studies Press. Henri De Toulouse- Lautrec. (1894). In the Salon at Rue des Moulins. Retrieved from Jablonska, Elzbieta. (2002). Super Mother. Retrieved from Keifer-Boyd, K., Maitland-Gholson, J. (2007). Engaging Visual Culture. Worchester, MA: Davis Publications. Kocks, Andreas. (2007). Paperwork #701G (in the beginning). Retrieved from Lhote, Andre. (1913). Port of Call. Retrieved from Ma,Y. (1993). A Reader-Response Analysis of A Book from the Sky. Selected Readings from the Annual Conference of the International Visual Literacy Association (26 th, Tempe, Arizona, October 12-16, 1994). Maher, J., Childs, N. (2003). A Longitudinal Content Analysis of Gender-roles in Children s Television Advertisements: A 27 Year Review. Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising vol (Spring 2003), Moore, T. (2010). Sex Roles-Sex-role Stereotypes, sex-role socialization. Peeters, Clara. (1615). Still Life with Cheeses, Almonds and Pretzels. Retrieved from _Still_Life_with_Cheeses,_Almonds_and_Pretzels.jpg Perry, G. (1999). Gender and Art. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Pillari, V. (1998). Human Behavior in the Social Environment: The Developing Person in a Holistic Context: 2 nd Edition. Pacific Grove, CA. Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Regina Catholic Education Center. (n.d.). Why Regina. Retrieved from 54

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67 Appendix A- Artist Gender Survey 56

68 Your gender (circle one): Male Female Your year of birth: Slide 1: Do you believe the artist is (circle one): Male Female Why did you select that gender for the artist? Slide 2: Do you believe the artist is (circle one): Male Female Why did you select that gender for the artist? Slide 3: Do you believe the artist is (circle one): Male Female Why did you select that gender for the artist? Slide 4: Do you believe the artist is (circle one): Male Female 57

69 Why did you select that gender for the artist? Slide 5: Do you believe the artist is (circle one): Male Female Why did you select that gender for the artist? Slide 6: Do you believe the artist is (circle one): Male Female Why did you select that gender for the artist? Slide 7: Do you believe the artist is (circle one): Male Female Why did you select that gender for the artist? Slide 8: Do you believe the artist is (circle one): Male Female 58

70 Why did you select that gender for the artist? Slide 9: Do you believe the artist is (circle one): Male Female Why did you select that gender for the artist? Slide 10: Do you believe the artist is (circle one): Male Female Why did you select that gender for the artist? Slide 11: Do you believe the artist is (circle one): Male Female Why did you select that gender for the artist? 59

71 Slide 12: Do you believe the artist is (circle one): Male Female Why did you select that gender for the artist? Slide 13: Do you believe the artist is (circle one): Male Female Why did you select that gender for the artist? Slide 14: Do you believe the artist is (circle one): Male Female Why did you select that gender for the artist? Slide 15: Do you believe the artist is (circle one): Male Female Why did you select that gender for the artist? 60

72 Appendix B- The Social Desirability Questionnaire 61

73 We would like you to indicate how desireable it is to you for a man to possess each of these characteristics. We want your judgement of how you evaluate each of these characteristics in a man. acts as a leader adaptable affectionate aggressive ambitious analytical Rate the characteristics on a scale of 1-7 Mark a 7- EXTREMELY DESIREABLE Mark a 6- VERY DESIREABLE Mark a 5- QUITE DESIREABLE Mark a 4- MODERATELY DESIREABLE Mark a 3- SOMEWHAT DESIREABLE Mark a 2- SLIGHTLY DESIREABLE Mark a 1- NOT AT ALL DESIREABLE assertive athletic cheerful childlike compassionate competitive conceited concientious conventional defends own beliefs does not use harsh language dominant eager to soothe hurt feelings feminine flatterable forceful friendly 62

74 We would like you to indicate how desireable it is to you for a man to possess each of these characteristics. We want your judgement of how you evaluate each of these characteristics in a man. gentle gullible Happy has leadership helpful independent Rate the characteristics on a scale of 1-7 Mark a 7- EXTREMELY DESIREABLE Mark a 6- VERY DESIREABLE Mark a 5- QUITE DESIREABLE Mark a 4- MODERATELY DESIREABLE Mark a 3- SOMEWHAT DESIREABLE Mark a 2- SLIGHTLY DESIREABLE Mark a 1- NOT AT ALL DESIREABLE individualistic inefficient jealous likeable loves children loyal makes decisions easily masculine moody reliable secretive self-reliant self-sufficient sentitive to needs of others shy sincere soft-spoken 63

75 We would like you to indicate how desireable it is to you for a man to possess each of these characteristics. We want your judgement of how you evaluate each of these characteristics in a man. solemn strong personality sympathetic tactful tender theatrical truthful Rate the characteristics on a scale of 1-7 Mark a 7- EXTREMELY DESIREABLE Mark a 6- VERY DESIREABLE Mark a 5- QUITE DESIREABLE Mark a 4- MODERATELY DESIREABLE Mark a 3- SOMEWHAT DESIREABLE Mark a 2- SLIGHTLY DESIREABLE Mark a 1- NOT AT ALL DESIREABLE understanding unpredictable unsystematic warm willing to take a stand willing to take risks yielding 64

76 Appendix C- List of Images 65

77 1. (Male) Wood, Grant. (1932). Daughters of the American Revolution. 66

78 2. (Male) David, Jacque Louis. (1784). The Oath of Horatii. 67