Qualitative Data CSHG Hotel Management School of Galicia Features Activities Undertaken Strategies Analytical Aids Introduction Qualitative research is concerned with the production and analysis of texts (transcripts of interviews, field notes, etc.) Qualitative research deals with data based on meanings expressed through words Consequently, questions must be formulated as clearly and unambiguously as possible Goals of the study: 1. Description, 2. Theory development 3. Sometimes testing of hypotheses Activities undertaken 1. Categorisation 2. Unitising data 3. Recognising relationships and developing the categories to facilitate them 4. Developing and testing hypotheses to reach conclusions. 1
1. Categorisation Classifying your data with codes or labels to rearrange data. This codes could be actual terms used by participants (inductive codes) the existing literature(a priory codes) Categories subsume two or more concepts (e.g. leisure tourism), they must have two aspects; an internal aspect as they have to be meaningful in relation to data an external aspect as they have to be meaningful in relation to other categories. 2. Unitising data Attach a category to a number of words, a sentence or a paragraph (units) It reduces and rearranges your data into a more manageable and comprehensible form Example If you have lupus, I mean one day it`s my liver; one day it s my joints; one day it s my head (1) and it s like people really think you re hypochondriac (2) if you keep complaining about different aliments, it s like you don t want to say anything because people are going to start thinking, you know, God, don t go near her (3) (1)Shifting symtoms (2)Interpreting Images (3)Avoiding disclosure 3. Recognising relationships and developing categories. First you enumerate the repetition of codes or words. Designing a suitable matrix and placing the data gathered within its cells. You can also use diagrams. Find relationships as Category1 is a part of Category2, Category1 is used for Category 2, Category1 is a result of Category 2, etc. Subdivide or integrate categories as ways of refining or focusing analysis Update definitions of each of the categories employed. 4. Developing and testing hypothesis Apparent relationship between categories need to be tested to conclude that there is an actual relationship A hypothesis (testable proposition) Test the hypotheses searching for alternative explanations and negative examples that do not conform to the pattern Explain why negative cases occur, and present alternative explanations Finally, develop conclusions Interactive nature of the process Data collection, analysis and the development and verification of relationships and conclusions are very much an interrelated and interactive set of processes Collection of data Hypotheses Categorisation of data 2
Analytical Aids In addition to writing up notes there should be a record of additional information. 1. Summaries 2. Self memos 3. Photographs Classification of Strategies DEDUCTIVELY BASED 1. Pattern matching 2. Explanation building INDUCTIVELY BASED 3. Grounded theory 4. Data display and analysis 4. Template analysis 5. Analytic induction 6. Narrative analysis 1. Pattern matching Theoretical propositions estate the pattern you expect to find. Researcher tries to test an Explanation 1. Establish a conceptual framework with dependent variables and Independent variables 2. Is the framework adequate to explain findings? - Data do not match, then you need to find out an alternative explanation 2. Explanation building An explanation is built while collecting data and analysing them It is designed to test a theoretical proposition, It is an iterative process that follows 6 steps: 1. It creates a theoretically based hypothesis 2. Data collection commences with an initial case study to compare the findings from this in relation to the hypothesis; 3. Where necessary, amend the initial hypothesis. 4. An additional round of data collection to compare the findings. 5. More corrections 6. Additional iterations until a satisfactory explanation is derived. 3. Grounded theory Theory building that combines inductive and deductive techniques. Data analysis leads to a generation of hypothesis that are then tested in further observation. The result becomes a theory when there are a set of categories systematically related that explain a phenomenon. 3
Processes Research question Theoretical sampling Collect data Coding Constant comparison Saturate categories Explore relationships between categories Theoretical sampling Collect data Saturate categories Test hypotheses Collection and analysis of data in other settings Outcomes Concepts Categories Hypotheses Substantive theory Formal theory 4. Data display and analysis This approach is composed of three different sub-processes: Summarising data Organising and assembling data into matrices or networks (Visual displays) Drawing and verifying conclusions Bryman, A. (2008) Eye contact Encourage Constant Made when talking 5. Template Non Verbal Communication Body language Paralanguage Personal appearance Handshake Facial expression Posture Discourage Made when listening Wondering eyes Not looking in the eye Accents Vocal filters It is a list of predetermined codes or categories that represent the themes from the data It combines deductive and inductive approach in the sense that codes are predetermined and then amended or added to as data are collected and analysed. Speech (Too fast) Managing change research project 1. Contextual factors 1. Reasons for the change 2. Environmental climate 3. Nature of the organisation 1. Organisational objectives 2. Culture 3. Ownership 4. Organisationals size and structure 5. Employee relations history to date 2. Nature of change 1. Internally driven 2. Externally driven 3. Perception of those affected 1. Directly affected 2. Indirectly affected 6. Analytic Induction Examination of a strategically selected number of cases to establish the causes of a specific phenomenon 4
7. Narrative analysis This approach considers fragmentation of data inappropriate A narrative is a sequenced experience, indicating a flow of related events that, taken together, are significant for the narrator and which convey meaning to the researcher The primary method to collect data is in-depth interviews. Usually, there are some structural elements: What is the story about? What happened, to whom, whereabouts and why? What consequences arose from this? What is the significance of these events? Computer Assisted Qualitative They are not worthy to use with small data set The main programs are: ATLAS.ti The Ethnograph QSR NUD*IST Vivo For more information Bryman (2008). Bibliography Bryman, A. (2008) Social Research Methods. Oxford, Oxford University Press. Flick, U. (2002) An Introduction to Qualitative Research. 2 nd edition. London, SAGE Publications Ltd. Johnson, B. Christensen, L. B. (2011) Educational Research: Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Approaches, Research 4 th edition. SAGE publications MILES, M.B. Y HUBERMAN, A. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2009) Research Methods for Business Students. 5 th edition. London, Pearson Education Ltd. 5