Psychology of Wellbeing

Psychology of Wellbeing Published by Global Vision Publishing House Edited by Rajbir Singh and Radhey Shyam HOPEFULNESS AND OPTIMISM ARE THE WAYS OF HAPPINESS Aqeel Khan Happiness is person s cognitive and affective evaluation of his or her life in terms of wellbeing and contentment. Happiness is the whole aim and end of human existence. In most of the studies, it was found that people rank the pursuit of happiness as one of the most cherished goal in life. (Diener and Oishi, 2000; Suh, Smith and Shao, 1995; Freedman, 1978; Triandis, Bontempo, Leung and Hui, 1990; Lyubomrisky, 2000). Happiness is beneficial for overall well-being. It is not events and the things that produce happiness, but a state of mind which can endow events with its own quality. If we exclude sensation and memory from our thoughts, there is nothing left but a wordless emptiness. Happy people attribute always good events and worthy quality of life. They have hopeful and optimistic view of life. Most folks are about as happy as they make up their minds to be, (Abraham Lincoln). According to Snyder (2000), Hope people with higher levels of hope remember more positive comments and events about themselves, whereas people with lower levels of hope remember more negative comments and events. People with higher levels of hope feel challenged by goals, whereas people with lower levels of hope feel demoralised by goals. People with higher levels of hope have higher feelings of self-worth. Previous scholarly writings have defined hope as a unidimensional construct involving an overall perception that goals can be met (French, 1952; Lewin, 1935; Stotland, 1969). Expanding on this unidimensional model, Snyder and his colleagues (Snyder et al., 1991) have suggested that goal directed thinking is made up of two necessary components. First, there are pathways thinking, which reflects the person s capacity to conceptualise one or more avenues by which to arrive as the desired goal. Second, there is agentic thinking, which tabs thoughts aimed at initiating and sustaining movement along one s chosen pathways toward a

400 Psychology of Wellbeing desired goal. In turn, hope reflects the iterative sum of pathways and agentic thinking. More specifically Snyder et al., (1991) defined hope as a cognitive set that is based on a reciprocally derived sense of successful (a) agency (goal directed determination) and (b) pathways (planning of ways to meet goals). Snyder et al., (2000) have listed some of the characterstistics of person with high hope and such a person is: More likely to have a fairly consistent pattern of high-hope thought across time. Probably has had a major positive adult role model to look up to as a adult. Is certain of his or her goals and challenged by them. Is likely to consider relevant external standards set by others, but attends primarily to his or her own standards in setting goals. Values progress toward goals as much as the goals themselves. Easily establishes friendships in childhood and later. Enjoys interacting with people and listening to the perspectives of others. Has give-and-take relationship in which both parties gain things from the interchange. Is more likely to have higher grades throughout school, is less likely to drop out, and is more likely to graduate from college. Is less anxious, especially in evaluative, test-taking circumstances. Exhibits more positive affectivity and is higher in well-being, perceived self-worth, self-esteem and confidence (in several arenas). Exhibits better recovery from physical injuries. Is less likely to have thought about suicide. Positive thinking and variants of positive psychology have demonstrated associations with healthy functioning in numerous life domains (e.g., Nunn, 1996; Snyder, 1995, 2002; Snyder et al., 1991). Snyder s (Snyder et al., 1991) cognitive theory presents hope as a dispositional construct that examines the degree to which individuals believe that they can achieve their goals for the future. Hope consists of two related aspects, the degree to which one can generate methods of achieving goals and the degree to which one can overcome goalrelated obstacles. Emotions, according to hope theory, arise in part as a result of hope (Snyder, 2002). Perceived failure or blocked goals results in negative emotions, whereas perceived success or goal attainment results in positive emotions (Snyder, 2002). Optimism Optimism is a characteristic that is the basis of positive thinking. It is a psychological resource that gives people a generalised expectancy that they will succeed in their endeavours. Expected success, in turn, gives the people will to expand effort to realise their goals. If they

Hopefulness and Optimism are the Ways of Happiness 401 expect failure then they will put less effort into a task and are more likely to give up as soon as an obstacle appears. Optimism is the belief that future events will have positive outcomes. The beneficial effects of optimism and positive coping skills have been shown to enhance one s ability to deal with stress and depression (Gillham and Seligman, 1999). Seligman (1998) reported that optimistic people experience less depression and increased enjoyment in social interactions. This is due to their ability to expect positive future outcomes based on positive past experiences. Positive relationships have also been found among optimism, hope, and health (Scioli et al., 1997). The literature abounds in studies on optimism as a dispositional characteristic (Lightsey, 1996). Many studies have shown that an optimistic outlook in life leads to less incidences of postpartum depression and distress, and greater subjective well-being and life satisfaction. It has also been positively correlated with goal setting and achievement and negatively with goal abandonment and resignation to fate. People who are optimistic will often see more opportunities than those who are pessimistic. They are able to put problems behind them and take a positive view of the future. Optimism is an attitude to life that prevents people from becoming apathetic, or giving up a hope. Their belief that things can only get better is often a tonic for those around them. Their optimistic view of the world can be infectious and influences those they interact with. The importance of optimism to the human species is shown by Martin Seligman (1991). According to him optimistic people explain positive events as being caused by themselves, see success as constant over time and consistent over different fields. Negative events are interpreted as bad luck, one time happenings that occurred in this specific field. This attribution of events will reinforce seeking opportunities, and it will foster persistence, even if a bad event comes along, as the next event will naturally be anticipated to be positive again. One would like to generalise the aspect of experience in the quality of persistence: one believes it does not have to be experience specific to a field. Maybe it only has to be experience that reinforces persistence, as often ideas are inspired by crossing borders between domains, and by neglecting the expertise that confined the solution space. Optimism has also been shown to reduce a number of physical ailments e.g., headaches, upset stomachs, and sleep problems (Robbins, Spence, and Clark, 1991). Research has found that college students who experienced high stress and scored low optimism had more somatic complaints than those who were stressed but were high optimism (Lai, 1995). Views of Optimism There are currently two main views of optimism, the explanatory style and the dispositional optimism view, also known as the direct belief view. The dispositional or direct belief views are used interchangeably in the literature as well as in this review. Also,

402 Psychology of Wellbeing much of the research on the dispositional and explanatory views overlap and many studies do not specify what specific style is being used as the theoretical framework for conducting the research. Therefore, some of the studies described will not specify the view on which the research is based on. This lack of distinction appears to be a problem with the optimism literature. At times it is difficult to determine exactly what view is being used as a foundation for a particular study. The development of the field of positive psychology may help to better distinguish the various constructs of optimism. The field of positive psychology will be discussed briefly, but will not be a major focus of this review. Seligman (1998) believes that there are three major factors that determine what a person s explanatory style is: permanence, pervasiveness, and personalisation. The personality disposition of optimism facilitates one in goal-directed behaviours, helps in coping with stress in a better fashion (Scheier and Carver, 1985) and leads to health enhancing states. It thus confers beneficial effects on physical well-being. Scheier and Carver (1992) have defined it as the disposition to believe in favourable rather than unfavourable outcomes to problems. Scheier and Carver (1985) found that optimists cope with stressful events more successfully and engage in more health enhancing behaviours than pessimists. They also found that optimism report fever physical symptoms over a pre-examination period. Optimists receive greater satisfaction from interpersonal relationships and perceive lesser stress and are better at coping compared to pessimists, optimists report greater satisfaction from relationships with friends, have lower levels of distress, are less depressed, have less perceived stress and are more socially supported (Scheier and Carver, 1992). Researchers continue to explore the effects of optimism on health. The health benefits that optimism may provide are: Decreased stress Greater resistance A sense of well-being and improved health Reduced risk of coronary artery disease Breathing easier if you have chronic obstructive lung disease, such as emphysema Improved coping ability for women with high-risk pregnancies Living longer Better coping skills. When one is already happy it is important not to lose this quality. People generally believe that if you are healthy, you will be happy, but there is an old saying in India: If you are happy, you are healthy. Maintaining an optimistic and hopeful view in life has been shown to reduce depression and positively affects to happiness.

Hopefulness and Optimism are the Ways of Happiness 403 Therefore, happiness plays a useful role in one s whole being. In order to live happily one should be encouraged to engage in more pleasant activities and develop hopefulness and optimism for rosy view of life. REFERENCES Diener, E., and Oishi, S. (2000). Money and happiness: Income and subjective well-being across nations. In E. Diener and E.M. Suh (eds.), Culture and Subjective Well-Being, Cambridge, M.A: MIT Press, 185-218. Freedman, J. (1978). Happy People: What Happiness is, who has it, and why. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. French, T.M. (1952). The integration of behavior. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Gillham, J. E. and Seligman, M. E. P. (1999). Footsteps on the road to a positive psychology. Behavior Research and Therapy, 37, 163-173. Lai, J. C. L. (1995). Moderating effect of optimism on the relation between hassles and somatic complaints. Psychological Reports, 76, 883-894. Lewin, K. (1935). Dynamic Theory of Personality. New York: McGraw Hill. Lightsey, M.E.P (1996). What leads to wellness? The role of Psychological resources in well-being. The Counselling Psychologist, 24, 4, 589-735. Lyubomrisky, S. (2000). Cultural Differences in the Pursuit of Happiness: The case of the United States Vs. Russia. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside. Nunn, K.P. (1996). Personal Hopefulness: A conceptual review of the relevance of the perceived future to psychiatry. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 69, 227-245. Robbins, A. S., Spence, J. T. and Clark, H. (1991). Psychological determinants of health and performance. The tangled web of desirable and undesirable characteristics. Personality Processes and Individual Differences, 61, 755-765. Scheier, M.F., and Carver, C.S. (1985). Optimism, coping and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies. Health Psychology, 4, 219-247. (1992). Effects of optimism on psychological and physical well-being: Theoretical overview and empirical update. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 16, 201-228. Scioli, A., Chamberlin, C. M., Samor, C. M., LaPointe, A. B., Campbell, T. L., Macleod, A. R., and Mclenon, J. (1997). A prospective study of hope, optimism, and health. Psychological Reports, 81, 723-733. Seligman, M. E. P. (1998). Learned Optimism. New York, NY: Pocket Books. (1991). Learned Optimism: New York: Knopf. Snyder, C.R. (1995). Conceptualizing, measuring and nurturing hope. Journal of Counselling and Development, 73, 355-360. (2000). Handbook of hope: Theory measures and applications. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

404 Psychology of Wellbeing (2002). Hope theory: Rainbows of the mind. Psychological Inquiry, 13, 249-275. Snyder, C.R., Harris, C., Anderson, J.R., Holleran, S.A., Irving, L.M., Sigmon, S.T., et al. (1991). The will and the ways: Development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 570-585. Snyder, C.R., Tran, T., Schroeder, L.L., Pulvers, K.M., Adams, V., and Laub. L. (2000). Teaching the Hope Recipe: Setting Goals, Finding Pathways to Those Goals and Getting Motivated. Reaching today s Youth, 46-50. Stotland, E. (1969). The Psychology of Hope. San Francisco. Jossey Bass. Suh, E.K., Smith, H. and Shao, L. (1995). National difference in reporting well-being: why do they occur? Social indicators Research, 34, 7-32. Triandis, H.C., Bontempo, R., Leung, K., and Hui, C.H. (1990). A method for determining cultural demographic and personal constructs. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 21, 302-318.

405 42 PERSONALITY CORRELATES OF HUMAN BLOOD GROUPS Priyanka Agrawal and Kamlesh Singh A blood type is a description of an individual s characteristics of red blood cells due to substances (carbohydrates and proteins) on the cell membrane. The two most important classifications to describe blood types in humans are ABO and the Rhesus factor (Rh factor). Individuals with type A blood have red blood cells with antigen A on their surface and produce antibodies against antigen B in their blood serum. Individuals with type B blood have the opposite arrangement, antigen B on their cells and produce antibodies against antigen A in their serum. Individuals with type AB blood have red blood cells with both antigens A and B and do not produce antibodies against either antigen in their serum. Individuals with type O blood have red blood cells with neither antigen but produce antibodies against both types of antigens. Overall, the O blood type is the most common blood type in the world, although in some areas, such as Sweden and Norway, the A group dominates. The A antigen is overall more common than the B antigen. Another characteristic of blood is Rhesus factor or Rh factor. It is named after the Rhesus Monkey, where the factor was first identified in 1940. Someone either has or does not have the Rh factor on the surface of their red blood cells. This is indicated as + or -, and the two groups are described as Rh positive (Rh+) or Rh negative (Rh-) respectively. This is often combined with the ABO type. Blood types are not evenly distributed throughout the human population. Type O+ blood is most common, though in some areas type A prevails, and there are other areas in which as many as 80 per cent of the people are type B. AB- is the rarest. There are also variations in blood-type distribution within human subpopulations (Landsteiner, 1900). Personality is derived from Latin word persona meaning mask. In psychology, personality describes the character of emotion, thought, and behaviour patterns unique to a person. Recently