A Discussion of the Incongruence Between Optimism and Academic Performance and Its Influence on School Violence

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1 A Discussion of the Incongruence Between Optimism and Academic Performance and Its Influence on School Violence Detris Honora Anthony Rolle ABSTRACT. This research suggests that incongruence between how a child views self and the aspirations pursued can lead to maladaptive externalizing behaviors in the form of activities related to school violence. As such, the purpose of this research is to examine the degree to which negative behaviors exhibited in adolescents are influenced by various degrees of optimism. This research approaches the issue of school violence with great care and because of the broad definitional issues concerning school violence and the nature of that data used in the study the researchers have chosen to reference the concept of school violence as activities related to school violence. [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: HAWORTH. address: <getinfo@haworthpressinc.com> Website: < by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.] KEYWORDS. Violence, self, adolescents, aspirations, school Detris Honora is Assistant Professor of Educational Psychology in the Department of Educational Research, Leadership, and Counselor Education at North Carolina State University. Her research focuses chiefly on issues of school achievement among low-income and minority youths. Anthony Rolle is Assistant Professor in the Department of Educational Research, Leadership, and Counselor Education at North Carolina State University. His areas of interest include economics of education, education finance, and quantitative methods. Journal of School Violence, Vol. 1(1) by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. 67

2 68 JOURNAL OF SCHOOL VIOLENCE INTRODUCTION Adolescence is a time of personal reflection and discovery that is marked by an exploration of possible selves and the pursuit of multiple opportunities (Erikson, 1968; 1980; Markus & Nurius, 1986). The act of emerging into adolescence leads youths to engage in a process of questioning and consequently redefining self (Erikson, 1968). More specifically, youngsters ponder such questions as: Who am I? Where am I going in life? Important to this period of exploration is a sense of optimism, defined as a generalized expectation of positive outcomes regarding current and future possibilities (Scheier & Carver, 1985). In order to develop a positive sense of optimism, children must be confident that they can negotiate normative life tasks successfully and overcome obstacles while pursuing their aspirations (Nurmi, 1991; Van Calster, Lens & Nuttin, 1987). The assumption here is that envisioning positive outcomes provides motivation for adolescents to continue pursuing their hopes and dreams. Studies have found that optimistic individuals not only expect positive outcomes but also employ appropriate behaviors to ensure opportunities to secure them (Nurmi, 1991; Scheier & Carver, 1985; Snyder, 1989). However, what happens when life situations (i.e., academic, personal, or familial circumstances) do not support or enhance children s optimism? When children lack the opportunity to meet normative tasks that define adolescence in society, they may seek alternative ways of viewing themselves. Moreover, adolescents may develop a negative sense of self that connects with and seeks support through involvement in delinquent activities (Erikson, 1968; 1980). After all, constructing a sense of self within the context of delinquency is a means of developing a sense of self, albeit a negative one. This research suggests that incongruence between how a child views self and the aspirations pursued can lead to maladaptive externalizing behaviors in the form of activities related to school violence. As such, the purpose of this research is to examine the degree to which negative behaviors exhibited in adolescents are influenced by various degrees of optimism. This research approaches the issue of school violence with great care and because of the broad definitional issues concerning school violence and the nature of that data used in the study the researchers have chosen to reference the concept of school violence as activities related to school violence.

3 Detris Honora and Anthony Rolle 69 BACKGROUND THEORY Control theory related directly to the traditional psychological concepts of self-regulation (Bandura, 1977; 1986) and attribution theory (Weiner, 1974; 1986) is grounded in the assumption that individuals have a basic desire to balance their view of present self with a relevant representative standard or future self-image (Scheier & Carver, 1981; 1982; 1983; 1985). Suggesting that individuals must have a standard upon which they actively can judge behavior, Scheier and Carver (1983) stated that comparisons with representative standards are absolutely necessary, if self regulation with regard to goals is to occur at all (p. 217). In fact, when incongruence exists between view of present self and a relevant reference, individuals attempt to alter behavior in order to reduce these discrepancies, thereby engaging in behavioral self-regulation, that is, the ability to control or regulate discrepancies between present self and a representative standard. However, when discrepancies are deemed too difficult or insurmountable, behavioral self-regulation is either interrupted or individuals abandon all attempts to meet the representative standard, thus leading to disengagement or as this research suggests potential engagement in activities related to school violence. The divergence between present self and a relevant representative standard has many references, but perhaps most prominent is the concept of possible selves (Markus and Nurius, 1986). Possible selves is defined by images of what one hopes or fears becoming in the future, include cognitive representations of hoped for, expected and feared selves. The works of Markus and her colleagues (Markus & Nurius, 1986; Markus & Rubolo, 1989; Oyserman and Markus, 1990a,b), link self-concept to behavior and identify representations of self as an important source of motivation and behavioral self-regulation. Possible selves influence motivation by helping individuals to construct outcomes that they hope to obtain or avoid in the future (feared self) and to enact behavior that serves as a catalyst to reaching a desired outcome (Oyserman and Markus, 1990b). The balance between possible selves is critical and allows individuals to weigh behavioral options and to choose the option that best results in a desired outcome. This suggests that it is not enough to encourage goal setting behavior among adolescents or to encourage adolescents to feel good about themselves, as proponents of self-esteem would advocate. To have maximal motivational effectiveness (p. 113), hoped for or expected possible selves must be counterbalanced by a competing feared possible self in the same do-

4 70 JOURNAL OF SCHOOL VIOLENCE main (Oyserman & Markus, 1990). For example, an adolescent may have an image of self as a doctor (expected self), but, for such an image to motivate positive or counteract negative behavior the youth must possess an image depicting what might happen (feared self) if behavior is not organized in a way that maximizes the opportunity to become a doctor. Thus, feared self serves as a motivational source of behavioral self-regulation that drives individuals to avoid an undesired outcome. In the absence of a comparable feared self, hoped for and expected selves will not provide sufficient motivation to self-regulate behavior to the extent of avoiding engagement in unproductive activities, such as delinquency or school violence. Oyserman and Markus (1990a) examined connections between possible selves and delinquency among 238 urban, middle and working class adolescents (13-16 years) with varying levels of involvement in delinquency. The researchers found considerable overlap (p. 117) in expected and in hoped for possible selves between the delinquent and non-delinquent group. The commonalities, although of varying frequencies, were in the categories of getting along in school, being happy, and having friends. The non-delinquent group was more likely to report expected and hoped for possible selves of getting along in school. The most frequently stated expected and hoped for possible selves among the delinquent group was being happy and having friends. Feared selves among the youths were more diverse, the top feared self among non-delinquents was not getting along in school as compared to the most delinquent group that reported feared self in the area of criminal activity. Oyserman and Markus then matched hoped for and expected possible selves with feared possible selves in the same domain, non-delinquent adolescents were more likely to have a feared possible self to counterbalance hoped for and expected possible selves. For example, if the adolescent expected to succeed in school, that expectation was balanced by a fear of what would happen if the youth did not reach the desired outcome of succeeding in school. Over 80% of hoped for or expected possible selves listed by the non-delinquent adolescents had compatible feared possible selves, compared to 37% among the delinquent adolescents. Although many of the delinquent adolescents had feared possible selves in various domains, the feared possible selves did not have a compatible hoped for or expected possible self to serve as a source of motivation to avoid delinquency or to avoid the feared outcome. The current study examined connections between activities related to school violence, optimism and school achievement where activities related to school violence are defined by engagement in physical disputes

5 Detris Honora and Anthony Rolle 71 and non-physical rule violations within the context of school. It is hypothesized that among adolescents who exhibit high levels of optimism those who report less than average levels of academic achievement and preparedness are more likely to engage in activities related to school violence than students who report above average levels of academic achievement and preparedness. The assumption is that engagement in activities related to school violence serves as a maladaptive coping strategy among adolescents who are high in optimism and lack the necessary academic skills to attain desired outcomes. Thus, engagement in activities related to school violence provides a mechanism to manage limited school achievement and limited preparation to reach one s goals. Correlates to optimism include academic preparation and school achievement (Chemers, Hu & Garcia, 2001; Van Calster, Lens & Nuttin, 1987), coping well with unanticipated change (Scheier, Weintraub, & Carver, 1986; Segerstrom, 2001; Segerstrom, Taylor, Kemeny & Fahey, 1998), lower depressive symptomatology (Puskar, Sereika, Lamb, Tusaie- Mumford & McGuinness, 1999), and physical well-being (Peterson & Bossio, 1991; Scheier & Carver, 1987, 1992). METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH DESIGN Data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88) was used to create both optimism measures and school violence measures from the Likert-scaled items. Only student responses for 8th grade middle school students (i.e., those eighth grade students not enrolled in some form of comprehensive high school) were examined (n = 14,404). Once the NELS:88 data were examined descriptively, it readily was apparent that the sheer number of individual optimism variables possible precluded a theoretical construction scale measure. As such, a principle component factor analysis with orthogonal varimax rotation was conducted on 21 data elements to form statistically-developed dependent standardized factors and on the 116 data elements to form statistically-developed independent standardized factors for the analyses. Interestingly, and importantly, the 21 dependent elements were reduced into two factors: (1) perceptions of violence in the school environment (11 of 21 questionnaire items); and, (2) activities related to school violence (7 of 21 questionnaire items). The large majority of the twelve (12) independent standardized factors formed from the analysis are highly similar to the theoretical correlates mentioned previously (see Table 1).

6 72 JOURNAL OF SCHOOL VIOLENCE TABLE 1. Variable Construction Based on Factor Analysis for an Empirical Model Estimating the Influence of Optimism on School Violence Modeled Variable School-community involvement Description Student participates in after-school or community academic, civic, and sports clubs activities (31 items) Talks with teachers and counselors Student regularly discusses activities, interests, and problems with teachers or counselors (14 items) School environment Student has positive perception of teachers and school environment (13 items) Self-esteem Student has positive disposition and perception of self-esteem (8 items) Talks about high school Student talks to parents, relatives, friends, teachers, and counselors about high school (6 items) Parent involvement at school Parents are aware of and involved in students academic and school activities (7 items) Self-confidence Student has positive perception of academic and physical abilities (5 items) Parent involvement at home Parents determine and enforce home rules and monitor activity of student at home (4 items) Respects parents Student has a positive perspective of parents as authority figures and role models (3 items) Academic optimism Student has positive perception of academic life in high school and beyond (2 items) Adult home after school Adults are present when student returns home from school (2 items) Father home after school Adults are present when student returns home from school (1 item) In addition to these standardized scales, two more variables were included to measure academic performance among the students: (1) A composite variable measuring the student s level of academic preparedness (i.e., academic preparedness); and, (2) A composite variable measuring academic achievement on a standardized exam (i.e., academic achievement). All of the independent factors retained after the factor analysis those factors with eigenvalues greater than 1 were subjected to stepwise multiple regression analyses to measure their statistical significance and explanatory power when predicting perceptions of violence in the school environment, and activities related to school violence, by 8th grade students. The analysis of the stepwise models ceased once the probabilistic criteria (F #.05) for variables to enter regression equations was violated; or, ceased one step beyond where variables entering the regression models added less than one percent to the adjusted r-squared statistic (β).

7 Detris Honora and Anthony Rolle 73 After the optimism variables significantly influencing school violence related activities were determined, variables were created to segregate the data into two groups: (1) Optimistic students who are high academic performers; and, (2) Optimistic students who are low academic performers. Students were designated as optimistic if they rated themselves above the median on the standardized optimism factors that were strong predictors of school violence. Students were designated as high academic performers if they scored above the median on the standardized factors representing academic performance; concurrently, students were designated as low academic performers if they scored below the median. After these designations were completed, a series of independent samples mean difference tests using all possible combinations of subgroup pairings were conducted to determine if statistically significant differences existed between the two subgroups. EMPIRICAL RESULTS Using the twelve independent variables described in Table 1, two sets of stepwise multiple regression analyses were conducted using ordinary least squares estimation. Due to the exploratory nature of the analysis, standardized parameter estimates are reported to allow direct comparisons of each independent variable s contribution to the overall explanatory and predictive power of the regression models. Based on these standardized parameters, the results of the analysis indicate that the school environment; father being home after school; self-esteem; school-community involvement; academic preparation; and, talking with teachers and counselors are the independent variables that strongly influence the level of violence perceived in the school environment (see Table 2). The final iteration of the regression model yielded an adjusted r-square statistic of.164, indicating that 16.4% of the variation in the level of violence perceived in the school environment can be explained by these independent variables. Notably, the strongest influence in forming the perception of violence is the school environment (β =.313). The second most influential characteristic among students was school-community involvement (β =.204) that positively influenced the perception of violence in the school environment. Third, while nearly equal in influence, though opposite in effect, having a father

8 74 JOURNAL OF SCHOOL VIOLENCE TABLE 2. Multiple Regression Analysis of Standardized Scales Estimating Perceptions of School Violence Independent Variable Standardized Parameter Estimate t-statistic p-value Adjusted R 2 School environment Father home after school Self-esteem School-community involvement Academic preparation Talks with teachers and counselors Intercept home after school (β =.180) was a positive influence while being poorly prepared academically (β = 2.179) was a negative influence. Finally, having high self-esteem (β =.143) and talking with teachers and counselors (β =.064) also positively influenced the perception of violence in the school environment. Using the twelve independent variables described in Table 1, a second set of stepwise multiple regression analyses was conducted using ordinary least squares estimation to determine each independent variable s contribution to the overall explanatory and predictive power for estimating engagement in activities related to school violence. Based on these standardized parameters, the results of the analysis indicate that the school environment; school-community involvement; academic preparation; talking about high school; academic optimism; level of self-confidence; and, whether or not a student respects their parents are the independent variables that strongly influence the level of violence engaged in by students while in the school environment (see Table 3). The final iteration of the regression model yielded an adjusted r-square statistic of.410, indicating that 41.0% of the variation in the level of violence engaged in by students while in the school environment can be explained by these independent variables. Again, both the strongest and second most influential characteristics in the predictive model were the school environment (β =.516) and school-community involvement (β =.290) which positively influenced the level of activities related to school violence engaged in by students while in the

9 Detris Honora and Anthony Rolle 75 TABLE 3. Multiple Regression Analysis of Standardized Scales Estimating Activities Related to School Violence Independent Variable Standardized Parameter Estimate t-statistic p-value Adjusted R 2 School environment Academic optimism Talks about high school School-community involvement Academic preparation Self-confidence Respects parents Intercept school environment. Third most influential in the model, though negative in effect, was being poorly prepared academically (β = 2.230). While nearly equal in influence, talking about high school (β =.205) and level of academic optimism (β =.193) both have a positive influence on the dependent variable. Finally, level of self-confidence (β =.154) and whether or not a student respects their parents (β =.093) also are independent variables that strongly influence the level of violence engaged in by students while in the school environment. Mean Differences Tests Given that the standardized optimism factors academic optimism, self-esteem, and self-confidence are supported by previous research as correlates of optimism, a series of independent samples mean difference tests (with all variances assumed to be unequal) were conducted to determine if statistically significant differences existed between optimistic students who are high academic performers and those optimistic students who are not. Due to the bifurcation of the concept of school violence into two factors (i.e., perceptions of school violence and engagement in activities related to school violence), the examination of the significant differences also is presented in two stages (see Tables 4A and 4B).

10 76 JOURNAL OF SCHOOL VIOLENCE TABLE 4-A. Mean Difference Tests on Perceptions of School Violence Between Optimistic Students Who Are High Academic Performers and Optimistic Students Who Are Low Academic Performers Components of Optimism and Perceptions of School Violence Academic Performance O1 O2 O3 A1 A2 t-statistic p-value X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X where, O-1: Academic Optimism O-2: Self-Esteem O-3: Self-Confidence A-1: Academic Preparation A-2: Academic Achievement When determining significant differences in perceptions of school violence between optimistic students who are high academic performers and those who are not, 15 of the 21 possible pairings were statistically significant at the p #.05 level. The negative t-statistics indicate that optimistic students who were low academic performers perceived more violence in their school environment than those who were high academic performers. Conspicuously, all six of the mean difference tests

11 Detris Honora and Anthony Rolle 77 TABLE 4-B. Mean Difference Tests on Activities Relating to School Violence Between Optimistic Students Who Are High Academic Performers and Optimistic Students Who Are Low Academic Performers Components of Optimism and Activities Relating to School Violence Academic Performance O1 O2 O3 A1 A2 t-statistic p-value X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X where, O-1: Academic Optimism O-2: Self-Esteem O-3: Self-Confidence A-1: Academic Preparation A-2: Academic Achievement that were not statistically significant included the variable representing academic achievement. More specifically, among optimistic students, regardless of whether students were high or low performers standardized achievement tests, there were no significant difference in their perceptions of school violence. Similarly, when determining significant differences in the engagement of activities related to school violence between optimistic students who are high academic performers and those who are not, 19 of the 21 possible pairings were statistically significant at the p #

12 78 JOURNAL OF SCHOOL VIOLENCE.05 level. The negative t-statistics indicate that optimistic students who were low academic performers engaged in more activities related to school violence than those who were high academic performers. In addition to maintaining the validity of the correlates of optimism (i.e., academic optimism, self-confidence, and self-esteem), analyses across both predictive models also confirm that having a positive school environment, participating actively in school-community endeavors, and being academically prepared to engage in the educational process all are strong predictors of dimensions of school violence. With the strength of the correlates confirmed, mean difference tests were analyzed to determine if statistically significant differences existed between optimistic students who are high academic performers and those optimistic students who are not. After examining all of the t-statistics, statistically significant differences were found for both measures of school violence academic preparedness and academic achievement when examining optimistic students who were high and low academic performers. Interestingly, when examining mean differences of perceptions of school violence, comparisons that were not statistically significant intimate that differences in academic achievement do change perceptions of school violence. IMPLICATIONS Results from the study suggest behavioral consequences of high optimism in the presence of limited academic preparedness. When incongruence exists between adolescents optimism to reach a desired outcome and the academic preparation needed to support it, adolescents are more likely to engage in activities related to school violence. This was not the case for academic achievement as defined by standardized test scores. Among students who were high in optimism, performance, high or low, on standardized assessments of student achievement did not significantly influence engagement in activities related to school violence. There are multiple ways of interpreting variations in the predictive ability of academic preparedness and academic achievement students may give more credence to in-class assessments of ability than to standardized tests when assessing the potential to reach a desired outcome or the standardized assessment may not be an adequate assessment of student skill level. Either way the finding provides important implications and suggests that educators further examine incongruence between optimism and

13 Detris Honora and Anthony Rolle 79 school preparedness not only as an academic issue but as a social issue that can influence engagement in activities related to school violence. Engagement in activities related to school violence on the part of adolescents who reported high levels of optimism but limited academic preparedness may suggest reactions to limited feelings of control on the part of these youths. The youths may not have or not perceive themselves as having the necessary skills to connect their current behavior to desired outcomes. Therefore, a high sense of optimism in the face of limited opportunity can relate to maladaptive externalizing behavior among youth. Dweck (1996) found that maladaptive behaviors are characteristic of individuals who feel a loss of or limited control over their situations. For this reason, this research suggests that it is not enough to encourage optimism among youth. Optimism without sufficient skills to support a positive, desired outcome may lead to engagement in activities related to school violence. Findings also support Scheier and Carver (1981; 1982; 1983; 1985) control theory approach to behavioral self-regulation. These researchers suggest that when incongruence exists between views of present self and a representative standard and the incongruence is deemed insurmountable, individuals disengage or abandon attempts to engage in behavioral self-regulation aimed at reaching a goal or meeting a representative standard. In this case, incongruence exists among students who are high in optimism but low in academic preparedness leading to disengagement from the academic component of school through engagement in activities related to school violence. Educators concerned with this topic should assess incongruence between student perceptions of academic preparedness and optimism, and help students to merge desired outcomes with current academic behavior. Students need to be aware of how their current behavior can impact, positively or negatively, their chances of reaching their goals and expectations. To do this, educators must move beyond simply encouraging students to feel good about self to helping students to develop achievement strategies that will better match behavior to desired goals and expectations. Finally, more research is needed in this area to determine the reasons for high levels of optimism relative to low academic preparedness. Could the high levels of optimism among lower achieving students suggest that these students desire more but lack the skills needed to successfully reach their goals and expectations? Or do high levels of optimism serve as protective factors among these youth, protecting them from images of limited future opportunities? The task is to better

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