Knowing Pt. 2: Schemata & Categorization

Knowing Pt. 2: Schemata & Categorization

Example Need paper & writing instrument! Follow along as I read the following paragraph Recall after reading

The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into different groups depending on their makeup. Of course, one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is the next step, otherwise you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo any particular endeavor. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run this may not seem important, but complications from doing too many can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. The manipulation of the appropriate mechanisms should be self-explanatory, and we need not dwell on it here. At first the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then one never can tell.

How to Wash Your Clothes The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into different groups depending on their makeup. Of course, one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is the next step, otherwise you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo any particular endeavor. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run this may not seem important, but complications from doing too many can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. The manipulation of the appropriate mechanisms should be self-explanatory, and we need not dwell on it here. At first the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then one never can tell.

Laundry Example Why was this a difficult task? What effect did the title have (based on what you know about memory)?

In our own world We use our semantic knowledge to understand the world Attempt to activate related information for use Activate group/structure of related information for a particular situation What happens when you go to

Restaurants Auto shops Barber shops Bars Classrooms Academic offices Schemas We have generic knowledge stored that fit with normal situations

Schemata Schema: A stored framework or body of knowledge about some topic.

Schematic Knowledge Allows us to pay attention Guides our understanding by focusing on what is important Allows for a coherent re-creation of an event Gaps in our memory could be filled Although

Schematic Knowledge Going to read list, then ID if items were in list

OK! Yes or no, items in list? snooze yawn dress sleep wine blanket

Schematic Knowledge Allows for a coherent re-creation of an event Gaps in our memory could be filled Although this could also lead to errors of intrusion List fits with schema of sleep Strategies to avoid recalling false information (false positives)? Warning about intrusions ahead of time! (Gallo, Roberts, & Seamon, 1997)

OK! Yes or no, items in list? temper doctor sick slice enrage clinic Warning strategies

Schemata Reconstruction versus Episodic Recall What we already know exerts a strong influence on what we remember about new material. How many animals of each kind did Moses take onto the Ark? Semantic illusions relatedness of information between concepts

Scripts Different types of schemata Example

Please read the following If the balloons popped, the sound wouldn t be able to carry since everything would be too far away from the correct floor. A closed window would also prevent the sound from carrying, since most buildings tend to be well insulated. Since the whole operation depends on a steady flow of electricity, a break in the middle of the wire would also cause problems. Of course, the fellow could shout, but the human voice is not loud enough to carry that far. An additional problem is that a string could break on the instrument. Then there could be no accompaniment to the message. It is clear that the best situation would involve less distance. Then there would be fewer potential problems. With face to face contact, the least number of things could go wrong.

Please read the following If the balloons popped, the sound wouldn t be able to carry since everything would be too far away from the correct floor. A closed window would also prevent the sound from carrying, since most buildings tend to be well insulated. Since the whole operation depends on a steady flow of electricity, a break in the middle of the wire would also cause problems. Of course, the fellow could shout, but the human voice is not loud enough to carry that far. An additional problem is that a string could break on the instrument. Then there could be no accompaniment to the message. It is clear that the best situation would involve less distance. Then there would be fewer potential problems. With face to face contact, the least number of things could go wrong.

Scripts Why does the picture help you understand the passage better? What do you think a script is?

Scripts Scripts: Temporally ordered schemata (special type of schema). Frames (or slots) define the basic structure of scripts Details about some specific event Default values fill the frames unless other information is provided. Sometimes, frames influence interpretation

The Soap Opera Effect Owens, Bower, & Black (1979) Nancy arrived at the lecture hall and decided to sit in the front row. She walked down the aisle and sat down in a seat. The professor went to the podium and began the lecture immediately. All through the talk Nancy could not concentrate on the lecture. The talk seemed especially long but finally the speaker finished. The professor was surrounded by people so Nancy quickly left the building. What is going on in the situation?

The Soap Opera Effect Owens, Bower, & Black (1979) Group 1: read the description Group 2: read extra paragraph first

The Soap Opera Effect Nancy woke up feeling sick again and wondered if she was really pregnant. How would she tell the professor that she had been seeing? And the money was another problem. Nancy arrived at the lecture hall and decided to sit in the front row. She walked down the aisle and sat down in a seat. The professor went to the podium and began the lecture immediately. All through the talk Nancy could not concentrate on the lecture. The talk seemed especially long but finally the speaker finished. The professor was surrounded by people so Nancy quickly left the building.

The Soap Opera Effect Owens, Bower, & Black (1979) Problem condition: recalled more of the story than the control condition. Also, included more information than what was there. Scripts help us organize info for recall Consequence: other script related info intrudes

Scripts Frames allow us to make inferences E.g., restaurant script - mention of waiter associated with menu Scripts and frames allow us to understand and predict various events in the sequence Driven by experience What if information violates script (atypical information)?

Evidence of Scripts Smith and Graesser (1981) People remember script atypical information better than script consistent information Jack took his dog to the vet. While waiting for the vet, he dropped his car keys.

Evidence of Scripts Jack took his dog to the vet. While waiting for the vet, he dropped his car keys. We can use our scripts to fill in information i.e., led the dog into the waiting room More likely that guessing occurs due to scripted info and better memory for unscripted info

Concepts and Categorization

Concept Formation Objects we encounter vary from ones we ve seen in the past how do we know what to do? E.g., squirrel Rely on categorized concepts and categories Semantic relatedness Squirrels in general, or NIU squirrels vs. squirrels elsewhere

Theories of Categorization There are three general theories about categorization Classic view Probabilistic views: Prototype view Exemplar view Explanation-based theories

1. Classic View of Categorization People create and use categories based on a system of rules: Necessary and sufficient features: must satisfy a set of rules to be a member of a category E.g., BACHELOR: an unmarried adult male A married male is not a bachelor (necessary) Nothing more is needed to identify (sufficient) Rules to be a bird?

1. Classic View of Categorization People can create categories on criteria However, many human categories do not seem to follow this process. What birds are considered more bird-like? Robin, sparrow, cardinal What birds are considered less bird-like? Flamingo, chicken

Characteristics of Human Categories Graded membership: Some category members are rated as being better members than others. Robin is a better bird than penguin. Loosely speaking, a tomato is considered a vegetable, although technically, it is a fruit. 4 is a better even number than 526 Follows rules of necessity and sufficiency Also found that people prefer 4 to 28 as an even number

Characteristics of Human Categories Other principle related to graded membership Related concepts: Central tendency: some mental core or center to a category where the best members will be found...is related to Typicality effects: the degree to which items are viewed a typical, central members of a category Remember Smith model & modified network model?

2. Probabilistic Theories Where does semantic information come from again? Probabilistic theories: Assume that categories in semantic memory are created by taking into account likelihoods across a person s experience Prototype theories: Category decisions made based on an idealized average a prototype All of your experiences of one category (i.e., a squirrel) Doesn t capture variations, just average

2. Probabilistic Theories Probabilistic theories: Assume that categories in semantic memory are created by taking into account likelihoods across a person s experience Exemplar theories: An alternative (but similar) to prototype theory. Category decisions are made based on all of the exemplars (examples) stored in semantic memory. We make judgments based on comparing something to our stored examples A robin is an example of a bird category, every exposure to squirrel

Characteristics of Human Categories Typicality depends on the number of attributes a member shares with other members of that category Family resemblance: Category members typically share a set of common features. Correlated attributes: Certain features tend to go together. Feathers and wings Scales and fins

3. Explanation-Based Theories How does the memory know which experiences to average across to form a category without knowing the category ahead of time? Categories are theories of the world people use to explain why things are the way they are. Categories reflect both the actual structure of the world, as well as the structure people impose upon it.

Explanation-Based Theories We are active problem solvers! Ad hoc categories based on situational circumstances Categories that can be created on the fly. Things that you could use to pound a nail with if you don t have a hammer shoe, brick, sock Demitri Martin sames and opposites Have many of the same characteristics as standard categories.

Schemas and Categorization Memory structures created based on our experiences Used to understand new experiences Can be helpful, make understanding and remembering easier Recall is not exact memory of situation, but reconstruction Fill in information not there can be helpful or harmful (intrusion) Knowing how these systems work help avoid errors! Categorization can have negative effects - stereotyping