Functional Analysis and Positive Behavior Support for Adults with Disabilities: Part Two Functional Assessment and Analysis Research has increasingly shown that many behaviors, traditionally viewed as undesirable, serve a function for the AWD. Keith Storey, Ph.D., BCBA D Graduate School of Education Touro University keith.storey@tu.edu Determining the function of an undesirable behavior is critically important to understanding and developing an intervention (whether formal or informal) for any undesirable behavior. Functional assessment is the key to effective behavioral support. Functional assessment should lead to a focus on preventing undesirable behaviors from occurring rather than waiting for the behavior to occur and then punishing it. 1
Because the focus of assessment is on determining the function of the behavior, intervention is more likely to be successful because the focus is on replacing disruptive behavior with appropriate behaviors that serve the same function. Two major functions behaviors may serve: (a) to obtain something desirable or (b) to escape or avoid something undesirable. 2
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A complete functional analysis involves three strategies: (a) interview. (b) direct observation. (c) systematic manipulations. A functional analysis is an assessment method of identifying the relationship between behaviors and the setting, antecedent, and consequent events that maintain the behaviors. 6
VALUES OF FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS Functional analysis acknowledges that a person's behavior is reasonable from that person's perspective. AWD do not engage in problem behavior because they have a disability label such as Autism Spectrum Disorder. There is a logic to peoples behavior, and functional analysis is an attempt to understand that logic. The objective of functional analysis is not to define and eliminate an undesirable behavior but to understand the structure and function of that behavior in order to teach and increase desirable and positive behaviors. A functional analysis is complete when five main outcomes are accomplished: 1. A clear description of the undesirable behavior(s), including classes (classes of behavior are groups of behavior that are of the same topography and serve the same function such as hitting, kicking, biting may be classed as aggressive behaviors ) or sequences of behaviors that frequently occur together. 2. Identification of the events, times, and situations that predict when the undesirable behavior(s) will and will not occur across the full range of typical daily routines (knowing when undesirable behavior does not occur, such as small group instruction, can provide information that is as important as knowing when undesirable behavior does occur). 7
3. Identification of the consequences that maintain the undesirable behaviors (that is, what function(s) the behavior appears to serve for the AWD). 4. Development of one or more summary statements or hypotheses that describe specific behaviors, a specific type of situation in which they occur, and the outcomes or reinforcers maintaining them in that situation. 5. Collection of direct observation data that support the summary statements that have been developed. It is important to understand that one behaviors may serve multiple functions for a AWD. For example, kicking the staff member may allow the AWD to gain social attention in one situation (the function being to get) and in another situation to escape a difficult task (the function being to avoid). 8
How should interviews be used in determining the function of the behavior? The first step in performing a functional assessment is to conduct an in depth interview with staff as well as parents and other direct caregivers. Interviewing the AWD may also be appropriate in many instances. The primary purpose of interview data is to begin to develop hypotheses about the function of the undesirable behavior being exhibited by the AWD. How should direct observations be used in determining the function of the behavior? The Functional Assessment Observation form (FAO) (O Neill, Albin, Storey, Horner, & Sprague, 2015) is useful for collecting direct observation data. 9
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Flowchart of Variables to Consider for Identifying Potential Interventions 11
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How do you determine replacement behaviors that serve the same function as the undesirable behaviors? Once the function of the behavior is understood then it is possible to effectively develop strategies which replace undesirable behaviors with more adaptive alternative behaviors (also known as skill building or replacement behaviors). 13
When the intervention is based on the function of the undesirable behavior the general strategy is to both weaken the maintaining consequence and strengthen a positive skill building behavior that services the same function. For example, if Freda is kicking the teacher in order to get teacher attention a replacement behavior could be teaching Freda appropriate methods of getting teacher attention such as asking a relevant question. The teacher could also give Freda attention at times when she is engaged in her work which would make it less necessary for Freda to engage in undesirable behaviors to get attention and would also reinforce Freda s on task behavior. All too often the intervention chosen is based upon the topography of the behavior rather than the function of the behavior. For example, a job coach may send a supported employee who curses (the topography) to a break room as a time out procedure. While this may be an effective intervention for some SE workers, for other SE workers who are engaging in the behavior in order to escape from a difficult task, the intervention is ineffective due to the job coach inadvertently reinforcing the escape behavior. In this situation, the SE worker will be more likely to curse in the future when presented with a difficult task. The focus on teaching replacement behavior is proactive. In other words, the intervention takes place when the undesirable behavior is not occurring and is focused on making desirable behaviors more probable. 14
Examples of Matching Interventions with Replacement Behaviors that Serve the Same Function In developing replacement behaviors it is important that the replacement behavior is functionally equivalent to the undesirable behavior (it services the same function). The replacement behavior should: 1. Be as efficient for the AWD as the undesirable behavior. 2. Is something that the AWD chooses or wants to do. 3. Is building positive skills for the AWD. Function of Behavior Dawn becomes aggressive towards others when she doesn t understand teacher directions (escape behavior) Potential Intervention Teach how to ask for help when directions are not clear. Function of Behavior Kristin likes to receive attention from peers (get behavior) but greets them inappropriately which evokes a negative response from her peers. Potential Intervention Teach appropriate greeting skills. Function of Behavior Roald gets very anxious during tests and will cause commotion in the hallway before a test in class so that he is sent to the office (escape behavior) Potential Intervention Teach relaxation techniques in addition to test taking skills. 15
What is positive reinforcement? Positive reinforcement is an event or stimulus presented after a response has been performed that increased the frequency of the behavior it follows (Kazdin, 2001). In other words, positive reinforcement is a process. You can only see that reinforcement has happened when an individual's behavior increases following the delivery of the reinforcer. If the behavior doesn't increase, it isn't a reinforcer. For instance, if Humera lines up appropriately for recess and the teacher praises her ( Humera, I like the way that you lined up right away for recess ) and if the teacher s praise is reinforcing for Humera, then she will be more likely to line up appropriately in the future (an increase in her behavior). What is negative reinforcement? Negative reinforcement is the contingent removal of an aversive stimulus immediately following a response that increases the future rate and/or probability of the response. (Alberto & Troutman, 2009). The key words in this definition are increases and removal. Both positive and negative reinforcement increase behavior. Negative reinforcement refers to the increase in the frequency of a response by removing an aversive event immediately after the response has been performed. 16
With positive reinforcement, when an AWD performs a behavior, the staff member gives the AWD something they like to increase the behavior. With negative reinforcement, when an AWD performs a behavior, the staff member removes something that the AWD dislikes. For example, a supported employee may work at a faster pace after their supervisor states that the workers in that area will get a special pizza party for lunch on Friday if they get the store ready for the grand opening by the end of the day. The work task of getting the store ready is the negative reinforcer, which is then removed following the desired behavior (completion of getting the store ready). Negative reinforcement is not a judgment of something being good or bad. It is important to remember that negative reinforcement can increase desirable behavior. Negative reinforcement works because the AWD performs the behavior to escape the aversive stimulus. Examples of Negative Reinforcement 1.Taking medicine to relieve a headache. 2.Leaving the house to escape from an argument with one s significant other. 4.Responding to a baby to escape from the crying. 5.Putting on a seat belt in car to end buzzer noise. 17
There are three questions to ask in order to determine if negative reinforcement contingencies are controlling undesirable behaviors: 1: Does the behavior result in the termination or postponement of specific requests, instructional demands, or instructional tasks, activities, or materials? For example, the staff member asks Kristin to get the table set for dinner and Kristin makes an obscene remark to the staff member. The staff member then sends Kristin to her room for cursing. The specific staff request (to get set the table for dinner) has been terminated. 2: Is the AWD not competent with regard to the specific instructions, tasks, requests, or materials? 18
For instance, the supervisor at work asks Humera to sort some files alphabetically by last name. Humera does not understand what it means to sort some files alphabetically by last name so she does not respond and continues to sit at her desk. The supervisor asks someone else to do the task. 3: Does the problem behavior occur more frequently under those specific content areas, tasks, materials, or requests identified in A and B above (in contrast to other content areas or tasks where the AWD is more capable)? For example, Betsy has trouble with math and if she is asked by her supervisor to do math work, she will often engage in undesirable behavior. In contrast, Betsy is very good at sorting things at work and when she is asked to sort, she is very enthusiastic and there is never any undesirable behavior that occurs. General comment. Remember that you want the AWD to be reinforced for desirable behaviors. 19
Punishment What is punishment? Type one punishment is the presentation of a stimulus or event after a behavior that decreases the frequency of the behavior (Kazdin, 2001). Type Two punishment is the removal of a stimulus or event after a behavior that decreases the frequency of the behavior (Kazdin, 2001). Punishment can be said to have occurred only if the AWD's rate of emitting the behavior has been reduced. Punishment, like reinforcement, is defined solely by its effect upon behavior (that it decreases the behavior). If the behavior doesn't decrease, it isn't a punisher. Is there any role for punishment in Positive Behavior Supports? Yes.but under only certain conditions. Only short term. Use so that you can build adaptive behavior. 20
PROBLEMS WITH USING PUNISHMENT Punishment per se is not necessarily either a good or a bad thing. When combined with reinforcement and other positive interventions, the use of punishment can be an effective strategy in implementing positive behavior supports. The more effective the positive interventions are, then the more effective and enhanced the mild and brief punishment procedures will be. A. At best punishment just stops a behavior. Just stopping a behavior doesn t solve problems. B. Stopping one behavior will cause another behavior to take its place. C. Because there are practically more ways to do something wrong than to do it right, by punishing undesirable behaviors without reinforcing or teaching a constructive alternative, you are likely to get another undesirable behavior that serves the same function. D. The behavior that gets punished may not be the behavior that you want to stop. E. Punishment, like positive reinforcement, is highly individual. 21
Reasonable types of punishment procedures: 1. Time Out. 2. Extinction (planned ignoring). 3. Response Cost. 22