CHAPTER 6. Learning. Lecture Overview. Introductory Definitions PSYCHOLOGY PSYCHOLOGY PSYCHOLOGY
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1 Learning CHAPTER 6 Write down important terms in this video. Explain Skinner s view on Free Will. Lecture Overview Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Cognitive-Social Learning The Biology of Learning Using Conditioning & Learning Principles Introductory Definitions Learning: relatively permanent change in behavior or mental processes resulting from practice or experience Conditioning: process of learning associations between environmental stimuli & behavioral responses 1
2 Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov Classical Conditioning: learning that occurs when a previously neutral stimulus (NS) is paired (associated) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR) Pavlov s Original Experiment Classical Conditioning: Key Terms Neutral Stimulus (NS): before conditioning doesn t naturally elicit response of interest Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): elicits UCR without prior conditioning Unconditioned Response (UCR): unlearned reaction to UCS occurring without prior conditioning 2
3 Classical Conditioning: Key Terms (Continued) Conditioned Stimulus (CS): previously NS that, through repeated pairings with UCS, now causes a CR Conditioned Response (CR): learned reaction to a CS occurring because of prior repeated pairings with an UCS What s so funny? Pause & Reflect: Psychology & Life 3
4 Classical Conditioning (Continued) Conditioned Emotional Response (CER): emotional responses are classically conditioned to a previously neutral stimulus (NS) Many of our likes, dislikes, prejudices, & fears are examples of CER John B. Watson Classical Conditioning John B. Watson Watson emphasized strictly observable behavior Watson founded behaviorism. Behaviorism explains behavior as a result of observable stimuli and observable responses. Watson & Rayner Created a CER Little Albert s Fear of Rats 4
5 Six Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning Basic Principle: Stimulus Generalization Stimulus Generalization: learned response to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimuli (CS) Stimulus Discrimination: learned response to specific stimulus ALL Snakes bite! Basic Principle: Extinction & Spontaneous Recovery Extinction: gradual weakening or suppression of a previously conditioned response (CR) Spontaneous Recovery: reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response (CR) 5
6 Reconditioning Reconditioning: a CS is reintroduced after extinction The conditioning occurs much faster the 2 nd time This is why it is difficult to break a bad habit Basic Principle: Higher Order Conditioning Higher-Order Conditioning: neutral stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) through repeated pairings with a previously conditioned stimulus (CS) Basic Principle: Higher Order Conditioning 6
7 Pause & Reflect: Assessment NS = Tone 1. Using Pavlov s classic UCS = experiment Food with the salivating dog, UCR can = you Salivation label the NS, CS = Tone UCS, UCR, CS, & CR? CR = Salivation 2. Compare & contrast stimulus generalization & stimulus discrimination? Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning: learning in which voluntary responses are controlled by their consequences Reinforcement: a consequence that strengthens a response & makes it more likely to occur. Punishment: a consequence that weakens a response & makes it less likely to occur. 7
8 Operant Conditioning (Continued) Thorndike s contribution Law of Effect: probability of an action being repeated is strengthened when followed by a pleasant or satisfying consequence video Operant Conditioning (Continued) B. F. Skinner: emphasized observable stimuli & responses Operant Conditioning s Basic Principles Reinforcement: strengthening a response Primary & secondary reinforcers Positive & negative reinforcement 8
9 Operant Conditioning s Basic Principles Positive or negative reinforcement strengthens a behavior Punishment weakens a behavior Operant Conditioning s Basic Principles (Continued) Primary Reinforcers: normally satisfy an unlearned biological need (e.g., food, sex) Secondary Reinforcers: learned value (e.g. attention, praise, money) Operant Conditioning s Basic Principles (Continued) Positive Reinforcement: adding (or presenting) a stimulus, which strengthens a response & makes it more likely to recur (e.g., praise) Video 9
10 Operant Conditioning s Basic Principles (Continued) Negative Reinforcement: taking away (or removing) a stimulus, which strengthens a response & makes it more likely to recur (e.g., headache removed after taking an aspirin) Video Operant Conditioning s Basic Principles: Four Partial Schedules of Reinforcement 1. Fixed Ratio (FR): reinforcement occurs after a predetermined set of responses; the ratio (number or amount) is fixed (e.g., vending machines) 2. Variable Ratio (VR): reinforcement occurs unpredictably; the ratio (number or amount) varies (e.g., slot machines) Operant Conditioning s Basic Principles: Four Partial Schedules of Reinforcement 3. Fixed Interval (FI): reinforcement occurs after a predetermined time has elapsed; the interval (time) is fixed (e.g., paycheck) 4. Variable Interval (VI): reinforcement occurs unpredictably; the interval (time) varies (e.g., pop quizzes) 10
11 Operant Conditioning s Basic Principles: Four Partial Schedules of Reinforcement Pause & Reflect: Assessment If you wanted to increase the overall number of responses, which schedule of reinforcement should you choose? Operant Conditioning s Basic Principles (Continued) Shaping: reinforcement is delivered after successive approximations of the desired response Partial reinforcement is important in maintaining behavior. 11
12 Operant Conditioning s Basic Principles (Continued) Punishment: weakening a response Positive & negative punishment Operant Conditioning s Basic Principles (Continued) Positive Punishment: adding (or presenting) a stimulus that weakens a response & makes it less likely to recur (e.g., shouting) Operant Conditioning s Basic Principles (Continued) Negative Punishment: taking away (or removing) a stimulus that weakens a response & makes it less likely to recur (e.g., restriction, jail) 12
13 Operant Conditioning Any process that adds or takes away something causing a behavior to decrease is punishment Operant Conditioning s Basic Principles (Continued) or curfew violation Pause & Reflect: Assessment Using the chart on the following slide, can you fill-in-the-blanks with the appropriate terms? 13
14 ??? Positive Reinforcement??? Positive Punishment??? Negative Reinforcement??? Negative Punishment Punishment To be effective, punishment must be immediate and consistent When punishment is not immediate, during the delay the behavior is likely to be reinforced on a partial schedule which makes it highly resistant to extinction Creates addictions like gambling. Learns what not to do, but not what to do 14
15 Side Effects of Punishment Passive Aggressiveness b/c aggression toward punisher leads to more punishment, one resorts to Avoidance behavior try to avoid punisher Modeling punisher serves as model for same behavior he/she is trying to stop Side Effects of Punishment Learned Helplessness If you repeatedly fail in your attempts to control your environment, you acquire a general sense of powerlessness or learned helplessness & make no further attempts to escape Side Effects of Punishment Temporary suppression Punishment suppresses behavior temporarily while the punisher is nearby Increased Aggression Punisher is rewarded for applying punishment because it produces a decrease in undesired behavior 15
16 Pause & Reflect: Assessment 1. Briefly explain how reinforcement differs from punishment. 2. Give a personal example of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, & negative punishment. Cognitive-Social Learning Cognitive-Social Learning: emphasizes the roles of thinking & social learning in behavior S-O-R: stimulus-organism-response Cognitive-Social Learning (Continued) Kohler s chimps demonstrated insight learning (sudden understanding of a problem that implies the solution). 16
17 Cognitive-Social Learning (Continued) Tolman s rats built a cognitive map (a mental image of a three-dimensional space). They also displayed latent learning (hidden learning that exists without behavioral signs). Latent Learning Cognitive-Social Learning (Continued) Observational Learning: learning new behaviors or information by watching & imitating others Also known as Modeling. Bandura's Famous Bobo Doll study Pause & Reflect: Critical Thinking Note the increasing bicep circumference of these G.I. Joe action figures. How might young boys & adult men be affected by this type of modeling & observational learning? 17
18 Cognitive-Social Learning (Continued) Observational Learning involves four processes: 1. Attention 2. Retention 3. Motor Reproduction 4. Reinforcement The Biology of Learning: Neuroscience & Learning General findings-- learning leads to new synaptic connections & alterations in many brain structures. 18
19 The Biology of Learning: Neuroscience & Learning Enriched vs. deprived environments lead to biological changes in both behavior & mental processes. Mirror Neurons & Imitation Specific neurons empathy & imitation Share their pain. Smile vs. frown Athletic events Biological mechanism for imitation Emotional deficits in autism and schizophrenia The Biology of Learning: Evolution & Learning Biological Preparedness: built-in (innate) readiness to form associations between certain stimuli & responses - Taste Aversion: classically conditioned negative associations of food with illness 19
20 The Biology of Learning: Evolution & Learning (Continued) Instinctive Drift: conditioned responses shift (or drift) back toward innate response patterns Using Conditioning & Learning Principles Classical Conditioning can be seen in: -Marketing -Prejudice -Medical Treatments -Phobias 20
21 Using Conditioning & Learning Principles Operant Conditioning can be seen in: -Prejudice -Biofeedback -Superstitions Using Conditioning & Learning Principles Cognitive-Social Learning can be seen in: -Prejudice -Media Influences Conditioning & Learning Prejudice: gains attention; increases one s self-esteem; stimulus generalization Biofeedback: learn to control relaxation, heart rate, etc. Superstitions: accidental reinforcement 21
22 Conditioning & Learning Media influences: NS (logo) + CS (attractive celebrity) NS CS Stereotypical roles & demeaning of women & minorities Initiates & reinforces prejudice Observational learning You get good at what you practice violence begets violence Pause & Reflect: Critical Thinking Has reading Chapter 6, or viewing these Power Point slides, changed your beliefs or attitudes about using conditioning to control behavior? Why or why not? End of CHAPTER 6 Learning 22
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