Annual prevalence estimates of cannabis use in the late 1990s

Cocaine abuse in most east European countries, by contrast, is still far less widespread and less of a problem. A majority of countries in eastern Europe either did not report on cocaine at all, or they perceived abuse levels as stable to declining (Czech Republic, Hungary, Latvia, Romania). Only authorities in Poland, Lithuania and Bulgaria perceived cocaine abuse to be on the rise. The latter case is apparently linked to cocaine having been shipped to Turkey for further distribution - via the Balkan route - to western Europe which led to some spill-overs into the local market. Africa Cocaine abuse in Africa continues to be concentrated in southern and western Africa. Reported trends for show a rather mixed picture. The only country reporting an increase in cocaine use in eastern Africa was Tanzania. While cocaine use has been increasing in the Republic of South Africa and a strong increase was reported by the authorities in Angola - reflecting the ongoing trafficking of cocaine via Brazil to Africa, consumption remained stable in Nigeria and was even decreasing in Cote d Ivoire which may be a reflection of some shifts in cocaine trafficking routes from western Africa to southern Africa. Though the bulk of cocaine being shipped to Africa is for final destinations in Europe, spill-overs do take place and supply the local market. The only country regularly reporting on cocaine in northern Africa, is Morocco, where abuse levels have been reported to have remained stable in. Oceania While authorities of New Zealand found cocaine use to have remained stable, Australia reported an ongoing rise. s have indeed been significant in the late1990s. Annual prevalence almost tripled between 1993 and -- from % to 1.4% of those aged 14 and above -- which is equivalent to the highest such Australia: Annual prevalence of cocaine use (age 14 and above) 1.6% 1.4% 1.4% 1.2% 1.0% 0.8% 0.6% 0.4% 0.2% 0.0% rates reported from Europe (Spain), and life-time prevalence rates reached 4.3% in, marginally higher than the highest figures reported from countries in South America. Methodological differences, notably a lower tendency to under-report drug abuse in Australia, may be party responsible for the rather high figures, compared to other countries. Asia Cocaine abuse in Asian countries, in general, is still a relatively rare phenomenon. Only seven Asian countries reported trends in cocaine consumption in, and most of these showed stable or downward trends. CANNABIS EXTENT % Cannabis is the most widely consumed drug worldwide. UNDCP estimates show that 3.4% of the global population (age 15 and above) used cannabis in the late 1990s. Prevalence rates were clearly above average in Oceania, North and South America as well as in Africa 1.0% 1993 1995 Source: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 1988 National Drug Strategy Household Survey, August (and previous years). Annual prevalence estimates of cannabis use in the late 1990s Number of people in % of population (in million) age 15 and above OCEANIA 4.5 19.3 - North America 22.2 7.2 - South America 14.7 5.3 AMERICAS 36.9 6.3 AFRICA 27.2 5.8 - Western Europe 17.4 5.4 - Eastern Europe 4.7 1.5 EUROPE 22.1 3.5 ASIA 53.5 2.1 GLOBAL 144.1 3.4 Above global average*: close to global average: below global average**: * 1 percentage point more than global prevalence rate or 3 times the global prevalence rate. ** 1 percentage point below global prevalence rate or less than 1/3 of global prevalence rate. Source: UNDCP, World Drug Report 2000. 247

Global Illicit Drug Trends 2001 Cannabis: Trends reported from the Americas for (N = 12 countries) Cannabis: Trends reported from Europe for (N = 25 countries) 8% 75% 8% 68% 17% 24% Cannabis: Trends reported from Africa for (N = 12 countries) Cannabis: Trends reported from Oceania for (N = 2 countries) 0% 83% 0% 17% 0% 100% and in western Europe. The largest numbers of cannabis users are found in Asia, accounting for more than third of global cannabis consumption, followed by a quarter in the Americas, and a fifth in Africa. Trends The general trends of cannabis use, reported by member states to UNDCP for the year, have shown an increase. s have been reported by a majority of countries in the Americas (both South and North America), in Europe (both West and East Europe), in Africa (i.e. in southern, western, eastern and northern Africa) and in Oceania. Only in Asia the picture is mixed. Cannabis: Trends reported from Asia for (N = 21 countries) 29% 24% countries in South- and South-West Asia as well as from two Central Asian countries bordering the South- West Asia region; in East Asia, authorities of Japan reported as stabilization and so 47% did the authorities of Singapore; in the Near East, Syria reported a stabilization while the authorities of the Lebanon reported a decline; In Europe stable trends were reported from the UK and Spain, Europe s two largest cannabis markets as well as from some of the smaller countries; a decline was reported from Greece; In Africa stable trends were reported from Nigeria and Tanzania; Given the large number of countries reporting increases in cannabis use, it would be useful to highlight the countries which deviate from this pattern: In Asia, declines have been mainly reported from In the Americas stable trends were reported from Mexico while surveys found some decline in Bolivia. 248

Abuse of Cannabis Level of abuse (Annual prevalence) > 8% of population 5-8% of population 1-5% of population < 1% of population Abuse, extent unknown Main cultivation areas Main trafficking routes Cannabis herb Cannabis resin Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. Note: Routes shown are not necessarily documented actual routes, but are rather general indications of the directions of illicit drug flows. UNDCP 249

Global Illicit Drug Trends 2001 Changes in abuse of cannabis, (or latest year available) Large increase Some increase Some decline Strong decline Not available Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. 250

CANNABIS Annual prevalence of abuse as percentage of the population aged 15 and above (unless otherwise indicated) AFRICA & AMERICAS AFRICA Eastern Africa Kenya*, 1994 Tanzania, United Rep.*, Uganda** Mauritius, North Africa 1.4 0.7 2.0 4.0 Morocco** 7.4 Egypt** 5.2 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Southern Africa South Africa*, 7.1 Zimbabwe, 6.3 Namibia, 3.9 West and Central Africa Ghana, 21.5 Sierra Leone, 16.2 Nigeria**, (11-61) 8.7 Mali*, 1995 7.8 Chad, 1995 Angola, Cote d Ivoire, AMERICAS Central America El Salvador** 0.9 0.01 0.01 9.2 Honduras, 5.9 Nicaragua** Guatemala, (12-18), Costa Rica, Belize, 1994 North America 2.6 2.5 USA, (12 and above), 8.9 Canada 1994 7.4 Mexico, 1.1 South America Brazil** 7.7 Colombia, Chile, 5.6 4.7 Argentina, Suriname, 1.3 3.7 Ecuador** Uruguay Bolivia, Venezuela* Peru Paraguay** 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.7 0.6 *UNDCP estimates based on local studies, special population group studies, and/or law enforcement agency assessments. ** Tentative estimate for the late 1990s. Sources: Annual Report Questionnaires, Government Reports, US Department of State, European Monitoring Center for Drugs and DrugAbuse (EMCDDA) The Caribbean St. Vincent Grenadines** 18.6 Dominican Rep., 6.9 Bahamas*, (16-59), 3.3 Montserrat, Dominica, Grenada, 0.8 0.01 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 251

Global Illicit Drug Trends 2001 CANNABIS Annual prevalence of abuse as percentage of the population aged 15 and above (unless otherwise indicated) EUROPE & OCEANIA EUROPE Eastern and Central Europe Czech Rep., 4.2 Poland, Slovenia** Estonia* Croatia, Moldova, Rep.*, Slovakia** Hungary** Bulgaria, Russian Federation** Macedonia, Ukraine*, Latvia, Lithuania** Belarus** 3.4 3.1 2.8 2.6 1.8 1.7 1.4 1.2 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.3 Western Europe United Kingdom, Ireland*, 1995 Switzerland, Spain, Netherlands, 5.2 9.0 7.9 7.0 6.8 Belgium** France, 1995 Italy** Greece, Germany, Luxembourg*, Denmark*, San Marino**, Norway*, Portugal** Austria*, Finland, Malta** 5.0 4.7 4.6 4.4 4.1 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.8 3.7 3.0 2.5 2.2 Sweden, Liechtenstein, Monaco, 0.4 0.4 OCEANIA Papua New Guinea,1995 Micronesia Fed.State., 1995 Australia, 17.9 29.5 29.1 New Zealand, 15.0 New Caledonia** 1.9 Fiji, Vanuatu, 0.2 0.06 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 252

CANNABIS Annual prevalence of abuse as percentage of the population aged 15 and above (unless otherwise indicated) ASIA ASIA Central Asia and Transcaucasia Tajikistan*, 3.4 Kazakhstan*, 3.2 Kyrgyzstan** 1.7 Uzbekistan*, 1.3 Azerbaijan*, Armenia*, 0.8 1.1 East and South-East Asia Philippines** 3.5 Cambodia** 1.3 Viet Nam** 1.0 Lao People's Dem. Rep.** 1.0 Thailand** 0.7 China (Hong Kong SAR)** 0.6 Taiwan, Province of China** China** China, (Macao SAR)** 0.2 Myanmar** Indonesia** 0.07 Korea, Rep** Japan** Malaysia, 0.04 Singapore, 0.03 Brunei Darussalam, 0.02 Near and Middle East and South-West Asia Afghanistan** 3.0 Pakistan*, 1.2 Israel** 0.9 Lebanon** Iran, Islamic Republic** 0.4 Bahrain** 0.4 Jordan, 0.2 Qatar, Oman, Syrian Arab Rep., 0.01 South Asia Bangladesh** 3.2 India** 3.2 Nepal** 2.8 Sri Lanka, 1.4 Maldives, 1994 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 253

Global Illicit Drug Trends 2001 prevalence in % 18.0% 16.6% 16.0% 14.0% 12.0% 10.0% 8.0% 6.0% 4.0% 2.0% 0.0% 13.2% 1979 USA: Cannabis use annual and monthly prevalence (age 12 years and above) 13.6% 9.7% 1980* 1981* 1982* 1983* 1984* 1985 1986* 1987* 1988* 1989* 1990* 1991 1992 Annual prevalence Monthly prevalence 8.9% 7.9% 8.5% 8.5% 8.4% 8.6% 9.0% 8.6% 8.9% 5.1% 4.7% 4.6% 4.8% 4.7% 4.7% 5.1% 5.0% 5.4% * Years for which no numbers are shown are re-adjusted estimates based on previously published time series data. 1993 1994 1995 Source: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, and previous years. 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 0% UK: Annual prevalence of cannabis use among 16-59 year olds 2.5% 4% 5% 8% 9% 9% 1982 1984 1991 1994 15.0% 10.0% 5.0% 0.0% Spain: annual prevalence of cannabis use (age 15-65)* 14.3% 9.0% 7.3% 7.6% 6.8% 1984 1985-90** 1995 * age groups differ slightly; 1984: 12 years and above; 1995 and readjusted by EMCDDA to 15-65 years. ** average of 8 studies conducted in different provinces over the 1985-90 period (range: 5.2%-13.6%) Sources: Home Office, Self-Reported Drug Misuse in England and Wales: finding from the 1992 British Crime Survey, London 1995, Home Office, Drug Misuse Declared in 1988: result from the British Crime Survey, London. Sources: UNDCP, Annual Reports Questionnaire and EMCDDA, Annual Report on the State of the Drugs Problem in the European Union, Lisbon 2000, 12.0% 10.0% 8.0% 6.0% 4.0% 2.0% Netherlands: cannabis use among highschool students (age 12-19) 2.0% 3.0% 6.5% 10.7% 9.3% Annual prevalence of cannabis use among the youth & adult population* among EU countries UK, Spain, Netherlands, France, 1995 Greece, Germany, 4.4% 4.1% 4.7% 5.2% 6.8% 9.0% 0.0% 1984 1988 1992 Source: Trimbos Institute, Key data - smoking, drinking, drug use & gambling among pupils, Utrecht and Trimbos Instituut (Zwart WM, Monshouwer K, Smit F), Jeugd en riskant gedrg, Kerngegevens, Roken drinken, drugsgebruik en gokken onder scholieren vanaf tien jaar, Utrecht 2000. Denmark, 1994 3.3% Finland, 2.5% Sweden, 1.0% 0.0% 2.0% 4.0% 6.0% 8.0% 10.0% * Youth and adult population covers in most countries the age group 15-75. Sources: UNDCP, Annual Reports Questionnaire and EMCDDA, Annual Report on the State of the Drugs Problem in the European Union, Lisbon 2000, 254

Even though in the USA, the world s largest cannabis market, cannabis use increased slightly in compared to a year earlier (both annual and monthly prevalence rates were going upwards) and compared to the mid 1990s, prevalence rates are still significantly below the levels reported a decade earlier and the market is one that has stabilized in the 1990s. The US Household Survey also stressed that the reported increase for was not statistically significant. Given the reported stabilization of cannabis consumption levels in Mexico and no significant increases reported from Canada or the USA, the whole North American cannabis market could be considered to be basically stable. The same, however, cannot be said of Central- and South- America or the Caribbean. All available evidence also supports the views of the Governments in the Oceania region of rising levels of cannabis use. Similarly, in Africa there is no evidence available, that would question the perception of generally rising levels of cannabis use. A UNDCP study, conducted in several African countries in, came to the same conclusion. The situation is more complex in Europe. Trends reported by the authorities of most European countries to UNDCP, as mentioned earlier, indicate a rise in consumption. However, there are at the same time indications of a levelling off of consumption in western Europe. An explanation of these conflicting trends for cannabis has been given by the EMCDDA in its latest annual report on the state of the drug problem in the European Union for the year 2000:.. continuing rises in countries with previously lower levels and some stabilisation in higher prevalence countries confirm the tendency toward convergence... Indeed, in the two main cannabis markets - UK and Spain - consumption has stabilized and the same is also occurring in the Netherlands, which so far had the third highest levels of cannabis use among the countries of the European Union. The latest high-school survey, conducted in, indeed indicates a stabilization of cannabis use. AMPHETAMINE-TYPE STIMULANTS EXTENT Abuse of amphetamines (i.e. amphetamine or methamphetamine) has been calculated to affect some 0.6% of the global population (age 15 and above). Though rates differ significantly from country to country, the regional averages - except for countries in the Oceania region - are rather close to the global average. About half the users of amphetamines (primarily methamphetamine) are found in Asia (mostly in the countries of East and South-East Asia). The Americas and Europe account for a third of global use of amphetamines. Relatively high levels of consumption have been also reported from countries in South America and in Africa. While consumption of amphetamines in North America, Europe and Asia is largely from clandestine sources, consumption in South America and Africa is still mainly supplied from licit channels where the dividing line between licit and illicit consumption is not always clear. Substances differ as well. While in Europe amphetamine is the ATS of choice, in South-East Asia and North America it is methamphetamine which in general is more potent and causes more health risks than amphetamine. Abuse patterns and risks associated with the abuse of different ATS are thus often not directly comparable with one another. About % of the global population (age 15 and above) consume ecstasy. Significantly higher ratios have been reported from countries in Oceania region, western Annual prevalence estimates of amphetamines use in the late 1990s Number of people in % of population (in million) age 15 and above OCEANIA 0.6 2.9 - Western Europe 3.1 0.8 - Eastern Europe 1.0 0.4 EUROPE 4.1 0.7 ASIA 2.1 0.7 - North America 2.2 0.8 - South America 4.3 0.7 AMERICAS 12.6 AFRICA 2.5 GLOBAL 24.2 0.6 Above global average*: close to global average: below global average**: * 1 percentage point more than global prevalence rate or 3 times the global prevalence rate. Source: UNDCP, World Drug Report 2000. 255