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The Current State of Our Education 2
Quantitative Research School of Management www.ramayah.com
Mental Challenge A man and his son are involved in an automobile accident. The man is killed and the boy, seriously injured, is rushed to the hospital for surgery. But the surgeon takes one look at the boy and says, I am sorry, but I cannot operate on this boy. He is my son.
What is Quantitative studies collect statistically valid data from large respondent samples. Usually conducted via telephone, mail, or email with a carefully crafted survey instrument, their primary function is to confirm or disprove preliminary assumptions, insights, or ideas to drive informed decision... marketconnectionsblog.com/ind ex.php/2007/05/22/key-marketresearch-terms-that-every-nonresearcher-should-know/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/quantitative_methods Quantitative research is the systematic scientific investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to natural phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships.
Approach Quantitative research is generally approached using scientific methods, which include: The generation of models, theories and hypotheses The development of instruments and methods for measurement Experimental control and manipulation of variables Collection of empirical data Modeling and analysis of data Evaluation of results
Research Process Observation Theory Refinement (Basic Research) OR Implementation (Applied Research) Data Interpretation and Final Report Writing Bab 15-20 Identify Management Dilemma Theoretical Framework OR Network of Relationships Hypothesis Data Analysis Bab 10-14 Data Sources & Collection Bab 6-9 Research Design Concepts Constructs Operational Definitions
Starting Point What is Research? Identifying and Stating What is it that you wish to do? What is the problem? - Problem Statement, Research Questions, Research Objectives, How Significant is the Topic - Literature Review, How do you theorize the interrelationships between all the concepts of interest? - Theory & Hypotheses.
Research This is part of Alice s conversation with the Cheshire Cat. In this Alice asks the Cat (Carroll 1989:63 4): Would you tell me, please, which way I ought to walk from here? That depends a good deal on where you want to get to, said the Cat. I don t much care where, said Alice. Then it doesn t matter which way you walk, said the Cat.
Research Problem Research problem is a situation that needs a solution and for which there are possible solutions. If a situation has no possible solutions then it makes little or no sense expending resources researching it. Take this statement, everybody wants to go to heaven but nobody wants to die. Dying looks like a problem that needs a solution yet there is no possible solution to it. People must die. A research on how people can live forever makes little or no sense.
Differences among the Topic, Problem, Purpose, and Questions General Topic Distance learning Research Problem Lack of students in distance classes Purpose Statement To study why students do not attend distance education classes at a community college Specific Research Question Does the use of Web site technology in the classroom deter students from enrolling in a distance education class?
Components Problem statements often have three elements: 1. The problem itself, stated clearly and with enough contextual detail to establish why it is important 2. The method of solving the problem, often stated as a claim or a working thesis 3. The purpose, statement of objective and scope of the project being proposed.
Role You need to be able to clearly answer the question: "what is the problem"? And "why is this problem worth my attention"? At the same time, the problem statement limits scope by focusing on some variables and not others. It also provides an opportunity for you to demonstrate why these variables are important.
RQ & RO
Model Development Literature Review Literature review involves the systematic identification, search, and analysis of documents containing information related to the research problem Why? We do not miss out important variables Clearer idea of what are the important variables Avoid reinventing the wheel Problem statement can be stated precisely and accurately Testability and replicability of the findings
Deductive Reasoning Theory Develop hypothesis Collect and Analyze data Accept/reject hypothesis
Inductive Reasoning Develop Theory Analyze patterns & themes Formulate Relationship Observe phenomenon
Research Paradigms Before a researcher starts to develop an experiment they must first make a declaration and indicate what their philosophical views are on the nature, purpose and research. Different researchers even within the same discipline have very distinct views what the point of doing research is, and how to interpret the results of an experiment, so they have to be clear up front about their views.
Research Paradigms There are various terms to describe these differences in views, including; Paradigm Worldview Epistemologies and ontologies Broadly conceived research methodologies
Research Paradigms Positivism/Post Positivism Constructionism/Interpretivism The middle ground: Critical realism Pragmatism
Language of Research Concepts Constructs Conceptual schemes Models Theory Terms used in research Operational definitions Variables Propositions/ Hypotheses
Concepts A concept is a generally accepted collection of meanings or characteristics associated with certain events, objects, conditions, situations and behavior Example: Table, chair, age, justice, ethics Success of Research Clear conceptualization of concepts Shared understanding of concepts
Constructs A construct is an image or abstract idea specifically invented for a given research and/or theory building purpose Constructs are built by combining simpler more concrete concepts especially when it is not directly observable Example: Exercise, job satisfaction, beauty
Variables Independent Dependent Moderator Mediator Control
Definition and Operational definition Dictionary definition An operational definition is a definition stated in terms of specific criteria for testing or measurement Must specify the characteristic and how they are to be observed
Operationalization Concept A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes e.g. sex, loyalty Operational Definition Dimensions Elements Gives meaning to a concept by specifying the activities or operations necessary to measure it Broad characteristics to ensure coverage or scope of the concept Specific items about the identified measurement, which are easily measured
Operationalizing: Learning Learning d d d Understanding Retention Application Answer questions correctly e e e e e Give appropriate examples Recall material after some lapse Solve problems applying concepts understood and recalled Integrate with other relevant material
Propositions and Hypotheses An hypothesis is a relationship that is assumed based upon logic, between two or more variables in the form that is testable. Concept A (Reinforcement) Concept B (Habits) Hypotheses at the Empirical Level Bonus RM for Sales exceeding quota Make more than 4 sales calls a day
Example - Hypotheses H 1 Employees who are more healthy will take sick leave less frequently H 2 If employees are more healthy, then they will take sick leave less frequently H 3 The greater the stress experienced in the job, the lower the job satisfaction of employees H 4 There is a relationship between age and job satisfaction
Theory A theory of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that are advanced to explain and predict phenomena (facts)
Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA, 1980) and Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB, 1991)
Model A model is defined as a representation of a system that is constructed to study some aspect of the system or the system as a a whole. Theory s role is explanation whereas a model s role is representation
Model Perceived usefulness Attitude Intention Ease of use Perceived behavioral control Subjective norm
Contribution in Research
Conceptual Contribution 1. improved conceptual definitions of the original constructs; 2. the identification and conceptual definition of additional constructs to be added to the conceptual framework (e.g., additional dependent, independent, mediating, and/or moderator variables); 3. the development of additional theoretical linkages (i.e., research hypotheses) with their accompanying rationale; and 4. the development of improved theoretical rationale for existing linkages.
Empirical Contribution 1. testing a theoretical linkage between two constructs that has not previously been tested, 2. examining the effects of a potential moderator variable on the nature of the relationship between two constructs, 3. determining the degree to which a variable mediates the relationship between two constructs, and 4. investigating the psychometric properties of an important scale.
Methodological Contribution 1. reduce the potential problems with shared method variance through the insightful use of multiple methods of measurement, 2. increase the generalizability of the research through more appropriate sampling procedures, 3. allow the investigation of the plausibility of "thirdvariable explanations" for the results of past studies, and/or 4. enhance the construct validity of key measures through the use of refined multiple-item measures and/or the use of measurement approaches that do not rely on self-reports.
Example
Contribution Continuum
Contribution Continuum 1-42
Suggested Reading Summers, J. O. (2001). Guidelines for conducting research and publishing in marketing: From conceptualization through the review process. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 29(4), 405-415 Morgan, N. A., Kaleka, A., & Katsikeas, C. S. (2002). Antecedents of Export Venture Performance: A Theoretical Model and Empirical Assessment. Journal of Marketing, 68(1), 90 108
Sources and Collection of Data How do you wish to proceed? What approach? experimental vs. nonexperimental What data? construct, measurement, questionnaire design. Where is the data coming from? Sampling & Data Collection Method
Measurement If you can t measure it, you can t manage it. Bob Donath, Consultant
Measurement Development of science is nothing but the development of measurement Whenever you can, count Everything that counts should be counted
Types of measurement Objective versus Subjective
Goodness of Measures Validity Are we measuring what we are supposed to measure? Is the measurement practical to be used? Criteria Is the measurement consistent? Practicality Reliability
Reliability and Validity Neither Reliable nor Valid Valid & Reliable Reliable but NOT Valid
Goodness of Measures GOODNESS OF DATA Reliability (Accuracy) Validity (Actuality) Stability Consistency Logical (content) Criterion related Test-retest Parallel form Interitem consistency Split-half Face Predictive Concurrent Congruent (construct) Convergent Discriminant
Data Collection Monitoring Communication
Data Collection Monitoring Behavioral Linguistic Non-behavioral Physical condition (books) Communication Survey Self administered Phone Interview Personal Interview Mail survey Web survey Experiment
Time Horizon Cross sectional Longitudinal
Measurement Scales Rating scale Ranking scale Categorization
Sample The Internet is superior to traditional libraries for comprehensive searches. Strongly disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Agree Strongly agree
Type of Questions Administrative Classification Target
Source of Questionnaire Adopted Adapted Self Develop
Sources of Error in Measurement Respondent Situation Measurer Instrument
Sampling Two Central Questions Do we sample or census? If sample: How to identify Who/what to include in the sample? - Sampling design How many to include in the sample? - Sample size
Sampling The basic idea of sampling is that by selecting several elements from a population, we can make an inference about the entire population.
Inference Average height of 2 nd year students is 150 centimeters Parameter Population Average height of 2nd year students in Mr Ali s class is 150 centimeters Statistic Sample
Types of Sampling Nonprobability Design Convenience Judgement Quota Snowball Sampling Design Probability Design One-stage design Multistage design Simple Random Systematic Stratified Cluster Simple Random Stratified Combination
Data Analysis What did you find? How good is your sample? Sample profile - Representativeness & Generalizability How good is the collected data? Factor & reliability analysis Are your hypotheses supported Statistical inference
Data Analysis Preanalytical Data Analysis Data Editing Variable Development Data Coding Error Check Feel for Data Goodness of Measures Inferential: Testing & Relationships Interpretation
Selecting the right Technique What is the purpose of the analysis? What is the level of measurement? How many variables are involved?
Report Writing What did you find? (cont.) What does your finding mean? Discussion meaning, comparisons with past findings, rationale why or why not; What are the implications of your findings? Theoretical significance what does it all mean does it dispute or lend further support to established theory; how does it expand on current theoretical perspectives? How does it help future researchers in the area (further research)? Practical significance how does your findings help the practitioners? What do they have to do to improve their management?
Now we are ready to publish
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