Survey Research Methodology

Survey Research Methodology Prepared by: Praveen Sapkota IAAS, TU, Rampur Chitwan, Nepal Social research Meaning of social research A social research is a systematic method of exploring, analyzing and conceptualizing social life in order to extend, correct or verify social theories. Aim of social research a) Discover new facts and or verify and test old facts. b) Analyze their sequences, interrelation ships and causal explanations c) Develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which facilitate reliable and valid study of human behavior. Problems of social research It is known that social sciences have not been able to establish generalization equivalent to the theories of natural sciences in a. scope of explanatory power b. precise prediction The problems faced by social researchers are: i. Complexity of subject matter- in natural sciences, variables are precise measured and therefore it is possible to establish universal laws, but social science deals with many variables that are acting independently and in interaction. Therefore, social science is complex due to its complex types of variable. ii. Difficulty in observation: observation is more subjective in social science. Motives values and attitudes are not open to inspection. Sometimes bias raised from the social scientists himself, who is guided by his own values and attitudes. iii. Difficulty in replication: a social scientists experimental method in one condition cannot be replicated with same precision by other scientists in other conditions. iv. Interaction of observer and subjects: investigators presence as observer in a situation may change the behavior of the human subjects. v. Difficulties in control: rigid control of experimental conditions and variables is not possible in social science. Social scientists must deal with many variables simultaneously and must work in the conditions that are two precise. Copyright @ Praveen Sapkota, Survey Research Methodology 1

vi. Problems in measurement: tools for measurement in social sciences are much less perfect and precise than the tools of the natural science. Characteristics of social research 1) Social research studies human behavior 2) SR is logical or theoretical and aims at explaining causal relationship in the subject matter. 3) SR is empirical: it is based on observer and reasoning. 4) SR is cumulative: findings explanations theories built upon one another. 5) SR is deterministic (predictive): not only help to determine the cause and effect relationship but also enables to predict the future events. 6) SR is general- aims to study the generalized or propositions about human behavior. The conclusions or inferences are generalized. 7) SR is specific- conceptualization and measurement of variables is specific. 8) SR is objective and replaceable. 9) Good SR is systematic- it is studied with specific steps. Define Research Problem Review of Literature Review Concept and Theories Review Previous Research F Formulate Hypothesis Define Research (Including Sampling Design) FF Collect Data FF Analyze Data and Test Hypothesis Copyright @ Praveen Sapkota, Survey Research Methodology 2 Interpret and Report

* F Feedback * FF- Feed Forward (Serves the vital function of providing criteria for evaluation) Brief introduction to research design Research design: A research design is a plan that specifies how data should be collected and analyzed. It is concerned with what, where, when, how and by what means A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. It is the blue print for collection, measurement and analysis of data. SR designs are the guidelines and not necessarily the strict rules and are thus should be flexible in nature These are the effective guidelines for collecting maximal information with minimal expenditure effort, time, and money. Generally research design consists of: a. Study site and its selection b. Target population c. Type of data to be collected d. Sources of data e. Sampling design f. Data collection techniques g. Data analysis technique Major functions of research design a. Providing a blueprint for studying social questions to minimize difficulties in conducting SR through description b. Economizing the necessary inputs c. Enabling the investigation to anticipate potential problems in conducting a particular SR. Objectives of research design To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to gain To describe things insight To determine association or relation between or among variables To test hypothesis Types of research design One may find many different types of research design different books. However important types of research design are enlisted and discussed below: 1. Survey design Copyright @ Praveen Sapkota, Survey Research Methodology 3

2. Case study design 3. Experimental design 4. Quasi experimental design 5. Expost factor design 6. library and historical design 7. pilot study Survey design Survey design is one of the most common designs in social research and serves many functions such as exploration, description and experimentation. Survey research specifies procedures for gathering information about a large no of people by collecting information from a few of them. ie. In a typical survey the research selects a sample of respondents and administers a standardized questionnaire to them. The standard of a survey design depends upon the a. The number of people one is able to obtain for the study (sample size). b. Their receptiveness in relation to the population from which they are selected and c. The accuracy of the data collected from them. Advantage of survey design: a. Accumulation of information from individuals or groups who otherwise could not express their need, desires, experiences, values and attitudes. b. Representativeness of large no of people or individuals given accuracy in research procedures c. Flexibility in variety of data collection techniques d. Exploratory function e. Exposure of investigators to the segment of reality under study. f. Testing of particular theoretical findings or models. Disadvantage of survey design: a. If questionnaire are used in depth information cant be collected b. Fluctuation of opinions of respondents under the influence of changing circumstances due to expectations under varying impacts c. Bias due to artificial segregation of samples and interviewed respondents and target population. Case study design The case study design refers to an intensive examination of a specific social settings or particular aspects of social settings. The unit of study in case study design could be and individual or a group of people or enterprise. Defining other way, a case study is a documentation of a phase of segment or of the totality of relevant experience of a certain subject. Since case study design explores the problems, issues and relationships in a particular situation, the inferences can t be generalized for all situations. Advantages: a. Flexibility with respect to data collection techniques. b. Comparatively lower costs to be incurred Copyright @ Praveen Sapkota, Survey Research Methodology 4

c. Flexibility with regard to accessibility of the social setting under study and to budget time personnel requirement. Disadvantages: a. Limited generalizability due to their limitations in scope. b. Generally more time consuming than surveys on account of the various types of flexibility. Types of research design Experimental designs In experimental designs it is assumed that some variables under study can be controlled. Generally one variable is changed and the rests are kept constant. In such experimental design, three major pairs of components are discussed. a. Independent and dependent variables b. Experimental and control groups c. Pre testing and post testing Independent and dependent variables Effect of an independent variable on dependent variable to be examined The independent variable takes the form of an experimental stimulus. Experimental and control groups A control group refers to a group having no experimental stimulus and should resemble the experimental group in all the other aspects. Whereas in experimental group experimental stimulus is exposed. The effect is compared in between them and the effect of stimulus is observed or analyzed. Diagram of basic experimental design Measure dependent variable Compare Measure dependent variable Administration of stimulus Re measure dependent variable Experimental group Compare Re measure dependent variable Control group Copyright @ Praveen Sapkota, Survey Research Methodology 5

Pre testing and post testing Subjects are measured in terms of dependent variables (pretested) exposed to a stimulus representing an independent variable and then re-measured in terms of the dependent variable (post \tested). Differences noted between the first and the last measurements on the dependent variables are attributed to the influence of the independent variable. Types of experimental designs 1. After only designs: seeks to compare an experimental group with a control group after an experimental variable has been introduced to one group and not to the other eg. Measurement of increase in sales after a sales promotion program. 2. The before after designs: pre testing and post testing. The experimental groups reaction is first measured before and after the experimental variation is introduced to them to check out the differences in behavior. Quasi experimental design Lack of random assignment of subjects to an experimental and control groups Library/historical research Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents remains etc to study event or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time. Library research Analysis of historical records techniques used is: recording of notes content analysis, tape and film listening and analysis Analysis of documents Techniques used are statistical complications and manipulations reference and abstract guides, content analysis Expost factor research: The main characteristics of this method are that the researcher has no control over the variables; he cans only report what has happened or what is happening. eg. Business researchers expost factor research is also known as descriptive research. Variables and their level of measurement Meaning of variable In simple words, a variable is a concept that can take different values. A variable is defined as logical groupings of attributes. By attributes we mean characteristics or qualities of and object. Copyright @ Praveen Sapkota, Survey Research Methodology 6

In social sciences, the object is a human being and its attributes are its characteristics such a age, sex, height, weight, attitudes, opinion etc. Specifically, a variable sex is composed of male of female attributes. Similarly, variable occupation has its attributes as farming, business services, etc. Types of variables 1. Dependent and independent variables: a dependent variable is that variable whose values depend upon or cause by another variable called independent variable. For example, if the level of income increases with the increase of size of holding. In this case the income is dependent. Variable and size of holding is independent variable. And independent variable is the cause of change in the dependent variable. Any given variable can be treated an independent in one part of analysis while dependent in another part of it. 2. Continuous and discrete variables: if any variable or phenomena can be measured quantitatively even in decimal points is called continuous variable. E.g. Age, weight, height, income etc. a discrete variable takes value in integer, such as number of family member, no of males and female, number of cattle. 3. Quantitative and qualitative variable: quantitative variable can be measured quantitatively such as weights. Whereas qualitative variables are expressed in qualitative terms such as male or female, tall or short, black or white, high or low. 4. Experimental and control variables: in any experimental research design if any variable is used as an experimental stimulus it is called as experimental variable. Whereas the rest of the variables that are kept constant (without changing) during the experiment are called control variable. 5. Extraneous variables: the dependent variable depends upon the independent variables. That are not related to the purpose of the purpose of the study are called extraneous variables. For example, production of a particular crop depends upon the use of various inputs such as fertilizers, irrigation, soil type, seed quality etc and so on. If the purpose of the study is to see the relationship between crop yield and quantity of irrigation, the rest of them are called extraneous variables. i.e. the relationship is also affected by these variables is not free from the influence of extraneous variables (yield and quantity of irrigation water) is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable. 6. Dichotomous and Polytomous variables: any variable seeking either of the two responses or having tow values is called dichotomous variable. For eg, if the response is either yes or no, or male or female, success or failure, agreement or disagreement, in this case the variable is called dichotomous. Whereas if the variable seeks many responses then it is called as Polytomous variable. Characteristics of variables: Exhaustiveness and mutually exclusiveness are the two important characteristics of a variable in question should fall in different categories used for the study purpose based on their attributes. For e.g. if there are four different categories of people by occupation namely, farmers, services, business and study, but our study categories them only into Copyright @ Praveen Sapkota, Survey Research Methodology 7

three categories such as farmer, business and service but didn t include study. In this case, we should be able to classify even the student category and no one should be left. Mutually exclusive characteristic explains that the variable in question should be categorized or classified into one and only one category in terms of its attributes. In above case, no person should be classified into two categories. For e.g. it a person s major occupation is farming and is also doing some business activities as secondary occupation. He/ she should be classified into farmer but not in both. Levels of measurement of variables It is well understood that a variable must be classified or categorized into different groups based on their attributes. There are four different levels of measurement of variables based on their characteristics. 1. nominal level or scale 2. ordinal level or scale 3. interval scale 4. ratio scale Nominal scale A nominal scale uses numbers, letters or symbol as the name of independent categories so that the scale values do not stand in any ordered relationship to one another, such types of variables have only exhaustiveness and mutual exclusiveness as their characteristics. For example, the sex variable has its categories as male and female similarly, number of players in a football match college categories, groupings on the basis of political parties etc. Exhaustiveness: exhaustiveness characteristics say that the variable in question should fall into different categories used for the study purpose, based on their attributes. Mutually exclusive: Characteristics explain that the variable is question should be categorized into one and only one category in terms. Ordinal scale; This measure indicates the relative position of a variable according to its attributes, or variables whose attributes may be logically rank ordered are called ordinal measures or scales. The attributes relatively more or less of the variable, in this case, the interval points are not defined and therefore may not be equal. For example, academic grades as first, second, third..and so on. Satisfaction levels as highly satisfied, dissatisfied and highly dissatisfied, greater or smaller, tall or short and the like. Interval scale In interval scale, the actual distance or interval separating attributes is standard and meaning full. In the scale, their interval points are equal. It may have arbitrary zero point Copyright @ Praveen Sapkota, Survey Research Methodology 8

and therefore lacks true zero or absolute zero, for e.g. is a thermometer, the scale points could be form 30 c-40 c or 60-70 c. Here, i. There is no absolute point in the scale. ii. Intervals are standard and equal iii. It requires some heat to raise temperature either form 30 c-40 c or 60-70 c iv. 30 is not half of 60 c In social science, such scale could be designed for measuring intelligence, attitude such as level of satisfaction, level of agreement, beauty, and opinions and so on. Say for eg. Score of one student is 80% and that of the other is 40%. It does not mean that the previous student is twice as intelligent as the later one since the zero point for grading is arbitrary. Similarly, a student having zero score is not regarded as completely not intelligent. Ratio scale: In this case a scale has the same characteristics as an equal interval scale plus the fact that zero represents the complete absent of the thing being measured. It means that in ratio scale there is true or absolute zero value. For eg, age height, length, weight number of meetings attended, crop production in a given piece of land etc. here for example it a farmer says that the production of wheat is 2.0 mt. per hectare and another says 4.0 mt. /hectare, the yield in the later case is exactly double than that of first ones field. This is most commonly used scale in measuring the variables. Sample: part of some population to represent the whole population. Sampling: process of selecting a sample Steps in sampling: Defining the population to be covered Defining sampling units Acquiring frame/ list of population to be covered Deciding the size of sample Selection Characteristics of good sampling design Must result in a true representative sample Results into small sampling error Design must be viable in terms of fund available Less systematic bias Advantages of sampling/sampling design Cost reduction Greater speed/ less time Collection of comprehensive data Accuracy: qualified personnel with intensive training and quality control In some cases it is not possible to do all the units for study eg. o Strength testing of bricks Copyright @ Praveen Sapkota, Survey Research Methodology 9

o Blood sampling Sampling techniques Probability sampling Non probability sampling Sample random sampling Systematic sampling Stratified sampling Cluster sampling Multistage sampling Accidental sampling Purposive sampling Quota sampling Probability Sampling: in probability sampling, a sample or each unit to be selected has some probability of being included in the sample. Non probability Sampling: there is no probability of any units to be included in a sample. Probability sampling 1. Simple random sampling: It is the most commonly used technique. In this method every unit of the population has equal ability or chance of being selected as a sample. There are two methods of selecting samples in this technique. a. Random sampling without replacement: in this case, once the sample is drawn, it is not replaced again. Therefore for the consecutive units the chance of being selected as a sample increases. b. Random sampling with replacement: in this technique, a unit or sample once drawn is again replaced, i.e. its chance of being selected in a sample is always equal each item. c. Sample drawing technique i. Lottery method: SN assigned SN write in a paper All paper pieces are kept in pot and mix homogenously Then the piec4es are blind pick up from the container The number written in the piece is certified as a sample ii. Random No. table: 066 902 652 287 217 110 961 084 317 218 650 734 Copyright @ Praveen Sapkota, Survey Research Methodology 10

2. Systematic sampling: a. Used when the population under study is evenly distributed b. Calculation of sampling interval K=N/n e.g. 150/15=10 c. Therefore no of items in each interval =10, say 1,2,3,.,10 d. Select first no randomly, suppose the no is 7 then sample are 7, 17, 27, 37, 47,.., 147. It is known as systematic sampling with a random start. 3. Stratified sampling: a. Divide population in different strata (e.g. according to sex, geography etc) b. Purpose of stratification is to make population more homogenous to decrease sample error. c. After forming strata select sample by using sample random sampling, systematic sampling etc. Types Proportionate stratified sampling Disproportionate stratified sampling 4. cluster sampling: a. used when study area is large b. area divided into smaller units called cluster c. then select all clusters or select clusters randomly select sampling units randomly from selected clusters d. i.e. the techniques is used for geographical areas, the techniques is called area sampling. 5. Multistage sampling: a. In this items are selected in different stages Stage 1- district Stage 2- VDCs Stage 3- wards Stage 4- HHs Stage 5- individuals b. Reduce traveling cost c. Reduce cost in conducting interviews. Non probability sampling a. Accidental sampling: A sample is selected by a researcher those units be happens to come across There is no time to prepare sampling frame, bias ful b. Purposive / judgment sampling: in this method samples are selected based on the researchers interest and objective so as to illustrate some particular Copyright @ Praveen Sapkota, Survey Research Methodology 11

characteristics in the population, study on successive farmers, progressive farmers, and tractor owning farmers. c. Quota sampling: certain quotas are fixed in each group under study and then select samples. If random procedure is applied this techniques becomes the stratified sampling. Methods and techniques of data collection A. Questionnaires method i. This is a way to collect information by using a set of questionnaire ii. This technique is also known as mailed questionnaire method iii. In this technique respondents are educated and can understand the questions easily iv. This technique is used when respondents are scattered in wider areas v. A well structured set of question sent to the concerned persons with the request letter so that the questionnaire is filled and returned to the concerned personnel or agency with in a given period of time. Merits: a. Low cost b. Free from the bias of interviewer c. Respondents get enough time to answer large samples can be handled d. Sensitive ideas are also responded. Demerits: a. Relatively lower response rate b. Limited only to educated and cooperating respondents c. Inbuilt flexibility d. Omission of some of the important but difficult questions e. Slowest of all f. Willing respondent not known B. Characteristics of good questionnaire a. Significant and relatedness to the respondent b. Short c. Attractive nearly arranged and clearly printed d. Clarity in concept e. Objective questions f. Orderly arranged C. Mode of administration of questionnaire a. Mail b. Telephone c. Face to face d. Website/ email Copyright @ Praveen Sapkota, Survey Research Methodology 12

D. Problems in asking question a. Sensitive question b. Complexity of questions c. Length of the question d. Hypothetical question e. Threatening question E. Questionnaire layout 1. Sequencing of questions a. Start with easy interesting and n9on threatening questions b. Put difficult and sensitive questions towards the end c. Put related content together d. Distinguish questions from instruction e. Usually ask demographic question in the end f. Use transitional phrase when switching from one topic to another e.g. nests I would like to learn more about.. 2. Sequencing with in the topic area: Go from general to specific ( use funneling technique) *Thank you* For details: Praveen Sapkota Praveenmusic@hotmail.com 977-98450-26716 Copyright @ Praveen Sapkota, Survey Research Methodology 13