Research Methodologies Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods By Wylie J. D. Tidwell, III, Ph.D. www.linkedin.com/in/wylietidwell3
Consider... The research design is the blueprint that enables the investigator to come up with solutions to these problems and guides him or her in the various stages of the research (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008, p. 89) Frankfort-Nachmias, C., & Nachmias, D. (2008). Research Methods in the Social Sciences(7th ed.). New York, NY: Worth.
Methodologies Qualitative Research
Definition Creswell (2003) describes qualitative research as a procedure of research that relies on text and image data collection, which draws a diverse inquiry to the research plan More so, this research method requires closer attention to the interpretive nature of the study and situating the research with political, social, and cultural context of the readers, participants, and even the researcher of the study (Creswell, 2007). Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Definition Qualitative research typically grows out of indepth interviews, specific observations, or written documents (Patton, 2002). Consider that a questionnaire or interview that asks both fixed choice [or closed] questions and open-ended questions is an example of how quantitative measurement and qualitative inquiry are often combined (Patton, 2002) Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods(3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Approach of Qualitative Research Qualitative research different assumptions/ approach than quantitative research Emphasis on seeing the world from the eyes of the participants Strive to make sense of phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them Holistic emphasis studying the person, group, culture in the natural setting 6-6 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Table 1.2, Qualitative and Quantitative Research Contrasted QUALITATIVE Multiple realities Reality is socially constructed Reality is context interrelated Holistic Strong philosophical perspective Reasoning is inductive Discovery of meaning is the basis of knowledge Develops theory QUANTITATIVE Single reality Reality is objective Reality is context free Reductionistic Strong theoretical base Reasoning is deductive and inductive Cause-and-effect relationships are the bases of knowledge Tests theory 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6-7
Table 1.2, Qualitative and Quantitative Research Contrasted (continued) QUALITATIVE Theory developed during study Meaning of concepts Process oriented Control unimportant Rich descriptions Basic element of analysis is words Uniqueness Trustworthiness of findings QUANTITATIVE Theory developed a priori Measurement of variables Outcome oriented Control important Precise measurement of variables Basic element of analysis is numbers Generalization Control of error 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6-8
Three Qualitative Methods TABLE 6.1 COMPARISON OF QUALITATIVE METHODS METHOD STUDY FOCUS ANALYTIC FOCUS DISCIPLINES Ethnography culture/cultural group describe a culture/cultural group Cultural Anthropology Grounded Theory cultural groups generate theory about a basic social process Sociology/ Symbolic Interaction/ Criminology Phenomenology individual experience discern the essence of the lived experience Philosophy/ Psychology/ Sociology 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6-9
Three Qualitative Methods: Ethnography Focus: study human behaviourin the cultural context in which it is embedded Ethnography is the work of describing a culture the way of life of a cultural group Associated with Cultural Anthropology Example: David Counts and Dorothy Ayer Counts: An Ethnography of RVing Seniors 6-10 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Three Qualitative Methods: Grounded Theory Focus: develop a theory to explain underlying social processes of a cultural group Useful in areas where little is known or when a new perspective is needed Used for exploratory, descriptive studies Because the theory emerges from the data, it is said to be groundedin the data Foundation in Symbolic Interactionism Example: Kerry Daly and the social construction of fatherhood 6-11 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Three Qualitative Methods: Phenomenology Focus: reveal the meaning of the lived experience from the perspective of participants Describe the essences of lived experience Essences: elements related to the true meaning of something that gives common understanding to the phenomenon under study Conveyed with descriptive language Drawn from Philosophy; used across disciplines Example: J.E. Solchany: A phenomenological study of women s preadoptive experiences 6-12 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Approaches to Data Analysis: 1. Ethnographic Data Analysis The ethnographer integrates data analysis into the data collection process while in the field Helps the ethnographer to guide his/her participation and observations in the field While in the field, the researcher conducts four levels of analysis simultaneously A. Domain Analysis B. Taxonomic Analysis C. Componential Analysis D. Theme Analysis 6-13 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Ethnographic Data Analysis: A. Domain Analysis The researcher is moving from observing a social situation (set of behaviourscarried out by people in a social situation) to discovering the cultural scene Cultural domain categories of meaning that include smaller categories Strive to identify the semantic relationship in the observations made E.g.,xis a kind of y; xis the result of y; xis a part of y 6-14 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Ethnographic Data Analysis: B. Taxonomic Analysis More in-depth analysis in which the researcher is searching for larger categories to which the domain may belong A taxonomy is a set of categories organized on the basis of a single semantic relationship Major difference: the taxonomy shows more of the relationships among things inside the cultural domain 6-15 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Ethnographic Data Analysis: C. Componential Analysis Componential analysis looks for contrasts among the cultural categories in the domains Systematic search for the attributes (components of culture) associated with cultural categories (Spradley) Uses idea of mail to explain. In our culture, we can classify our mail e.g., junk mail (flyers, notices, etc.), bills, magazines, personal letters because each cluster has an attribute that conveys meaning. Not visible to someone from another culture 6-16 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Ethnographic Data Analysis: D. Theme Analysis Cultural themes are recurrent patterns in the data that are used to connect domains Themesare assertions that apply to numerous situations and have a high degree of generality Spradleysuggests a number of universal themes, such as social conflict, cultural contradictions, informal techniques of social control, managing impersonal social relations, acquiring and maintaining status, solving problems, etc. 6-17 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Methodologies Quantitative Research
Quantitative methods use theory deductively and places it toward the beginning of the plan for a study... [it] becomes a framework for the entire study... (Creswell, 2003, p. 125). Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
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Defining Surveys Survey Design To provide a quantitative description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population Components of a Survey Method Plan The Survey Design The Population and Sample Instrumentation Variables in the Study Data Analysis and Interpretation Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
A Survey Method Plan The Survey Design Provide a rationale for using a survey Indicate the type of survey design: Cross-sectional (data collected at one point in time) Longitudinal (data collected over time) The Population and Sample Specify the characteristics of the population (size, sampling frame) Specify the sampling procedures Single stage or multi-stage Random or convenience Use a sample size formula to determine the needed sample size Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
A Survey Method Plan Instrumentation Provide detailed information about the survey instrument How developed, Pilot testing Sample items, Types of scores Describe the validity and reliability scores of past and/or current uses of the instrument Validity: whether one can draw meaning and useful inferences from scores on the instruments Reliability: whether scores resulting from past use are internally consistent, have high test-retest correlations, and result from consistent scoring Describe steps for administering survey and ensuring a high response rate Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Defining Experiments Experimental Design To test the impact of a treatment on an outcome, controlling for other factors that might influence that outcome Components of an Experimental Method Plan Participants Variables Instrumentation and Materials Experimental Procedures Threats to Validity Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
An Experimental Method Plan Participants Describe the selection of participants Random or convenience Describe the assignment of participants to groups Random or not; Consider matching participants Describe the procedures for determining the number of participants per group Variables Clarify the groups Identify the independent variable(s), including the treatment variable Identify the dependent variable(s), the outcomes Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
An Experimental Method Plan Instrumentation and Materials Discuss instruments development, items, and scales reliability and validity reports of past uses Thoroughly discuss materials used for the treatment Experimental Procedures Identify the type of experiment Pre-experimental, true experiment, quasi-experiment, and single-subject designs Identify the type of comparisons: within-group or between-subject Provide a visual model X = treatment O = observation Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
An Experimental Method Plan Consider Threats to Validity Threats to internal validity: procedures, treatments, or experiences of the participants that threaten the researcher's ability to draw conclusions about cause and effect Threats to external validity: characteristics of the sample, setting, or timing that threaten the researcher's ability to generalize the conclusions to a population Threats to statistical conclusion validity: inadequate statistical power or violation of statistical assumptions that threaten the researcher's ability to draw statistical inferences Threats to construct validity: inadequate definitions and measures of variables that threaten the researcher's ability to measure relevant constructs Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Threats to Validity (Tables 8.5 & 8.6) Threats to Internal Validity History Maturation Regression Selection Mortality Diffusion of treatment Compensatory/resentful demoralization Compensatory rivalry Testing Instrumentation Threats to External Validity Interaction of selection and treatment Interaction of setting and treatment Interaction of history and treatment Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
An Experimental Method Plan The Procedure Describe in detail the procedure for conducting the experiment Procedures for pre-test post-test control group design Measure dependent variable as a pre-test Assign participants to matched pairs based on scores Randomly assign one member of each pair to the control and experimental group Expose experimental group to the treatment Measure dependent variable as a post-test from both groups Compare groups statistically Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Methodologies Mixed Method Research
The Nature of Mixed Methods Research Describe this approach in your proposal Trace its history Provide a definition Mixed methods research is an approach to inquiry that combines or associates both qualitative and quantitative forms. It involves philosophical assumptions, the use of qualitative and quantitative approaches, and the mixing of both approaches in a study. Thus, it is more than simply collecting and analyzing both kinds of data; it also involves the use of both approaches in tandem so that the overall strength of a study is greater than either qualitative or quantitative research (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007). Discuss the challenges with this approach Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Planning Mixed Methods Procedures Timing Weighting Mixing Theorizing No Sequence Concurrent Sequential - Qualitative first Sequential - Quantitative first Equal Integrating Explicit Qualitative Connecting Implicit Quantitative Embedding Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Data Collection Procedures Identify the types of quantitative and qualitative data Develop a rigorous sampling procedure that may include aspects of both random and purposeful sampling Provide details in a visual diagram of your study Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Data Analysis and Validation Procedures Match data analysis to the mixed methods strategy of inquiry Popular procedures include: Data transformation Explore outliers Instrument development Examine multiple levels Create a matrix Validation procedures: Quantitative procedures (e.g., validity and reliability of scores) Qualitative procedures (e.g., check accuracy of findings) Mixed methods procedures (e.g., legitimation of the mixed methods study) Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Report Presentation Structure Report structure follows from the mixed methods strategy of inquiry Sequential study: Organize the report into sections ordered to match the phases of the study Concurrent study: Organize the data collection into separate sections The analysis and interpretation may be combined Transformative study: Use either a sequential or concurrent report structure Advance the advocacy issue at the beginning and an agenda for change at the end Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.