Social Psychology. Arun Kumar Singh

Social Psychology Arun Kumar Singh

Social Psychology ARUN KUMAR SINGH Former, Professor and Head Postgraduate Department of Psychology Patna University, Patna Delhi-110092 2015

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Arun Kumar Singh 2015 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN-978-81-203-5057-1 The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher. Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj Industrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Mohan Makhijani at Rekha Printers Private Limited, New Delhi-110020.

To My Wife Kumud Rani

Contents Preface xiii 1. INTRODUCING SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 1 19 Learning Objectives 1 Key Terms 1 Definition and Nature of Social Psychology 2 Social Psychology: A Historical Perspective 4 Overview of Social Psychology in Indian Perspective 11 Social Psychology as a Science 12 Fundamental Axioms of Social Psychology 14 Relation of Social Psychology with Other Sciences 15 Summary and Review 18 Review Questions 19 2. RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 20 62 Learning Objectives 1 Key Terms 20 Objectives of Social Psychological Research 21 Basic Concepts of Research 22 Basic Research Methods 24 Validity of Experiment 44 Social Psychology of Experiment 46 Role of Theory in Social Psychological Research 50 Types of Research in Social Psychology 52 Summary and Review 59 Review Questions 61 v

vi Contents 3. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF MODERN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 63 81 Learning Objectives 63 Key Terms 63 Role Theories 65 Motivational Theories 67 Learning Theories 69 Cognitive Theories 73 Symbolic Interaction Theories 75 Socio-Cultural Theories 77 Evolutionary Theories 78 Summary and Review 80 Review Questions 81 4. SELF AND IDENTITY 82 107 Learning Objectives 82 Key Terms 82 Meaning and Nature of Self 83 Development (or Sources) of Social Self 85 Self and Culture 88 Effects of Self Upon Thoughts, Behaviour and Emotions: Process of Self-Regulation 91 Identity: The Self We Interact 93 Self-Esteem 96 Self-Serving Bias 103 Self as an Object of Prejudice 104 Summary and Review 106 Review Questions 107 5. SOCIAL COGNITION, SOCIAL PERCEPTION AND ATTRIBUTION 108 168 Learning Objectives 108 Key Terms 108 Meaning and Nature of Social Cognition 109 Components of Social Cognition: Schema and Prototype 110 Impact of Schema upon Social Cognition: Schematic Processing 113 Self-Fulfilling Nature of Schema 115 Cognitive Heuristics: Mental Shortcuts for Reducing Our Efforts in Social Cognition 116 Potential Sources of Errors in Social Cognition 119 Cognition and Affect: A Reciprocal Relationship 124 Field of Interpersonal Perception: Social Perception and Person Perception 126 Role of Non-verbal Cues in Person Perception: Forming Impression of Others 127

Contents vii Recognising Deceptions in Non-verbal Cues 133 Impression Formation 134 Integrating Information about Others 136 Impression Management 144 Downside of Impression Management 147 Self-Perception 148 Attribution: Understanding the Causes of Others Behaviour 149 Theories of Attribution 149 Bias and Error in Attribution 158 Applications of Attribution Theory 162 Cultural Basis of Attribution 165 Summary and Review 166 Review Questions 168 6. SOCIALISATION 169 194 Learning Objectives 169 Key Terms 169 Meaning and Nature of Socialisation 170 Theoretical Perspectives of Socialisation 171 Process of Socialisation 179 Agents of Socialisation 181 Outcomes of Socialisation 187 Concept of Adult Socialisation 192 Summary and Review 193 Review Questions 194 7. SOCIAL ATTITUDES AND PERSUASION 195 256 Learning Objectives 195 Key Terms 195 Brief Historical Review 196 Defining Attitude and Its Components 196 Functions of Attitude 199 Attitude and Behaviour 200 How do Attitudes Guide Behaviour? 204 Formation and Maintenance of Attitudes 206 Attitude Change and Persuasion 209 Theories of Attitude Organisation and Change 222 Cognitive Consistency Theories and Attitude Change 222 Social Learning Theories of Attitude Change 235 Other Theories of Attitude Change 237 Conclusion Regarding Theories Attitude Change 241 When do Attitude Change and Persuasion Become Difficult? 242 Dimensions of Attitude 244

viii Contents Measurement of Attitude 245 Conclusion-Regarding Attitude Measurement 254 Summary and Review 254 Review Questions 256 8. STEREOTYPING, PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION 257 294 Learning Objectives 257 Key Terms 257 Nature and Contents of Stereotypes 258 Why do People Form and Use Stereotypes? 262 Activation of Stereotypes 264 Impact of Stereotypes on Judgements and Actions 265 Changing Stereotypes and Barriers to Stereotype Change 266 Gender Stereotypes 268 Shifting Standards: Does no Difference in Evaluations or Ratings Mean Absence of Stereotypic Thinking? 272 Stereotypes Associated with Single and Married Persons 273 Concept of Prejudice and Discrimination 274 Forms of Prejudice and Discrimination 276 Origin, Development and Maintenance of Prejudice and Discrimination 278 Reduction of Prejudice and Discrimination 287 Measurement of Prejudice 291 Summary and Review 292 Review Questions 294 9. BEHAVIOURS IN GROUP 295 333 Learning Objectives 295 Key Terms 295 Meaning and Nature of Social Group 296 Group: Some Basic Features and Aspects 297 Why do People Join a Group?: Benefits and Costs of Joining 301 Types of Groups 302 Group Development 305 Effects of Presence of Others: Social Facilitation and Social Inhibition 306 Social Loafing 309 Effects of Being in Crowd: Deindividuation 311 Group Decision-making 313 Group Polarisation: Risky Shift Beyond Risk-Caution Dimension 314 Groupthink: Does Group Hinder or Assist Group Decision? 316 Biased Use of Information in Groups 319 Failure to Share Unique Information from Some Members 320 Ways of Improving Group Decisions 320 Guidelines for Effective Decision-making 321

Contents ix Group Interaction: Cooperation versus Competition 321 Cooperation and Competition in Two-person Games 323 Determinants of Cooperation and Competition 326 Communication Network in Group 329 Summary and Review 331 Review Questions 332 10. SOCIAL NORMS AND CONFORMITY BEHAVIOUR 334 348 Learning Objectives 334 Key Terms 334 Concept of Social Norms 335 Formation of Social Norms 336 Early Experiments on Norm Formation 337 Meaning of Conformity Behaviour 339 Why do We Conform? 340 Factors Influencing Conformity 342 How can We Resist Social Pressure to Conform? 345 Summary and Review 347 Review Questions 348 11. LEADERSHIP AND SOCIAL POWER 349 385 Learning Objectives 349 Key Terms 349 Defining Leadership 350 Emergence of Leadership 351 Functions of Leaders 352 Transformational and Transactional Leaders: Differential Impact 353 Personal Characteristics of Leaders 356 Basic Dimensions of Leader Behaviour 359 Types of Leaders 360 How is a Leader Perceived by the Followers? 363 Theories of Leadership 365 Meaning and Bases of Social Power 378 Determinants of Social Power 381 Summary and Review 383 Review Questions 385 12. INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION AND RELATIONSHIP 386 410 Learning Objectives 386 Key Terms 386 Meaning and Nature of Interpersonal Attraction 387 Theories of Interpersonal Attraction 387

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