Chapter 14 Social Psychology This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images Any rental, lease or lending of the program. ISBN: 0-131-73180-7 Social Psychology Social psychology The branch of psychology that studies the effects of social variables and cognitions on individual behavior and social interactions Social context The combination of (a) People (b) The activities and interactions among people (c) The setting in which behavior occurs, and (d) The expectations and social norms governing behavior in that setting How Does the Social Situation Affect our Behavior? We usually adapt our behavior to the demands of the social situation, and in ambiguous situations we take our cues from the behavior of others in that setting 1
How Does the Social Situation Affect our Behavior? Situationism The view that environmental conditions influence people s behavior as much or more than their personal dispositions do Social Standards of Behavior Social role One of several socially defined patterns of behavior that are expected of persons in a given setting or group Script Knowledge about the sequence of events and actions that is expected in a particular setting Social Standards of Behavior Social norms A group s expectations regarding what is appropriate and acceptable for its members attitudes and behavior Social norms influence students political views 2
Correct estimated (percent) Conformity: The Asch studies Which line matches the line on the left? A 1 2 3 Standard line Comparison lines Conformity: The Asch studies What would you say if you were in a room full of people who all picked line number three? A 1 2 3 Standard line Comparison lines Conformity 100 80 No opposition (control) With partner 60 40 Alone against majority 20 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Critical trials 3
Group Characteristics That Produce Conformity Ashe identifies three factors that influence whether a person will yield to pressure: The size of the majority The presence of a partner who dissented from the majority The size of the discrepancy between the correct answer and the majority position Groupthink In groupthink, members of the group attempt to conform their opinions to what each believes to be the consensus of the group Conditions Likely to Promote Groupthink Conditions likely to promote groupthink include: Isolation of the group High group cohesiveness Directive leadership Lack of norms requiring methodical procedures Homogeneity of members social background and ideology High stress from external threats with low hope of a better solution than that of the group leader 4
Generator Caution Generator Caution Amps Amps On Intensity On Intensity Resistance Resistance Obedience to Authority Imagine if an experimenter studying the effects of punishment on memory asked you to deliver painful electric shocks to a a middle-aged man who had been treated for a heart condition Each time the man missed an answer, you would be instructed to deliver an increasingly powerful shock Milgram s Generator Amp Meter Slight Moderate Strong Very Strong Intense Extreme Danger XXX Would you deliver a Moderate? Milgram s Generator Amp Meter Slight Moderate Strong Very Strong Intense Extreme Danger XXX Would you refuse the experimenter s instruction to deliver an Extreme? 5
Generator Caution Generator Caution Amps Amps On Intensity On Intensity Resistance Resistance Milgram s Generator Amp Meter Slight Moderate Strong Very Strong Intense Extreme Danger XXX What if the victim was screaming in agony? Milgram s Generator Amp Meter Slight Moderate Strong Very Strong Intense Extreme Danger XXX Two thirds of participants delivered the maximum 450 volts to the learner Obedience to Authority In Milgram s experiment The victim was an actor The victim received no actual shocks Nevertheless, this controversial experiment demonstrated how powerful effects of obedience to authority Situational factors, and not personality variables, appeared to effect people s levels of obedience 6
Obedience in Milgram s Experiments Ten Steps Toward Evil- Getting Good People to Harm Others 1. Provide people with an ideology to justify beliefs for actions 2. Make people take a small first step toward a harmful act with a minor, trivial action and then gradually increase those small actions 3. Make those in charge seem like a just authority 4. Slowly transform a once compassionate leader into a dictatorial figure 5. Provide people with vague and ever changing rules Ten Steps Toward Evil- Getting Good People to Harm Others 6. Relabel the situation s actors and their actions to legitimize the ideology 7. Provide people with social models of compliance 8. Allow verbal dissent but only if people continue to comply behaviorally with orders 9. Encourage dehumanizing the victim 10.Make exiting the situation difficult 7
Percentage helping The Bystander Problem Diffusion of responsibility Dilution or weakening of each group member s obligation to act when responsibility is perceived to be shared with all group members The Bystander Problem In one experiment, a student was led to believe that the he or she was taking part in an experiment with between one and five other students (over an intercom) The student then heard what sounded like another student having a seizure and gasping for help The researchers timed how long it would take the students to ask for help Bystander Intervention in an Emergency 100 80 2-person groups 3-person groups 60 6-person groups 40 20 0 20 80 120 160 200 240 280 Seconds from beginning of emergency 8
Constructing Social Reality: What Influences Our Judgments of Others? The judgments we make about others depend not only on their behavior but also on our interpretation of their actions within a social context Constructing Social Reality: What Influences Our Judgments of Others? Social reality An individual s subjective interpretation of other people and of relationships with them Interpersonal Attraction Reward theory of attraction A social learning view that says we like best those who give us maximum rewards at minimum cost Proximity Self-Disclosure Similarity Physical Attractiveness 9
Expectations and the Influence of Self-Esteem Matching hypothesis Prediction that most people will find friends and mates that are about their same level of attractiveness Expectancy-value theory Theory that people decide whether or not to pursue a relationship by weighing the potential value of the relationship against their expectations of success in establishing the relationship Attraction and Self-Justification Cognitive dissonance A highly motivating state in which people have conflicting cognitions, especially when their voluntary actions conflict with their attitudes Making Cognitive Attributions Fundamental attribution error Tendency to emphasize internal causes and ignore external pressures Self-serving bias Attributional pattern in which one takes credit for success but denies responsibility for failure 10
Prejudice and Discrimination Prejudice A negative attitude toward an individual based solely on his or her membership in a particular group Discrimination A negative action taken against an individual as a result of his or her group membership Prejudice and Discrimination In-group The group with which an individual identifies Out-group Those outside the group with which an individual identifies Social distance The perceived difference or similarity between oneself and another person Causes of Prejudice Dissimilarity and Social Distance 11
Causes of Prejudice Dissimilarity and Social Distance Economic Competition Causes of Prejudice Dissimilarity and Social Distance Economic Competition Scapegoating Causes of Prejudice Dissimilarity and Social Distance Economic Competition Scapegoating Conformity to Social Norms 12
Causes of Prejudice Dissimilarity and Social Distance Economic Competition Scapegoating Conformity to Social Norms Media Stereotypes Combating Prejudice Research suggests that the possible tools for combating prejudice include: New role models Equal status contact Legislation Other Topics in Social Psychology Social facilitation An increase in an individual s performance because of being in a group Social loafing An decrease in performance because of being in a group 13
Other Topics in Social Psychology Deindividuation Occurs when group members lose their sense of personal identity and responsibility and the group assumes responsibility for their behavior Other Topics in Social Psychology Group polarization When individuals in a group have similar, though not identical, views, their opinions become more extreme Groupthink An excessive tendency to seek recurrence among group members Loving Relationships Romantic love A temporary and highly emotional condition based on infatuation and sexual desire 14
Sternberg s Triangular Theory of Love Passion Intimacy Commitment What Are the Roots of Violence and Terrorism? The power of the situation can help us understand violence and terrorism, but the broader understanding requires multiple perspectives that go beyond the boundaries of traditional psychology The Robbers Cave: An Experiment in Conflict In the Robber s Cave experiment, conflict between groups arose from an intensely competitive situation Cooperation, however, replaced conflict when the experimenters contrived situations that fostered mutual interdependence and common goals for the groups 15
The Robbers Cave: An Experiment in Conflict Violence and aggression Terms that refer to behavior that is intended to cause harm Cohesiveness Solidarity, loyalty, and a sense of group membership The Robbers Cave: An Experiment in Conflict Mutual interdependence Shared sense that individuals or groups need each other in order to achieve common goals Terrorism Terrorism The use of violent, unpredictable acts by a small group against a larger group for political, economic, or religious goals Taking multiple perspectives can provide important insights on the problems of aggression, violence, and terrorism 16
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