Chapter 1. Understanding Social Behavior
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1 Chapter 1 Understanding Social Behavior
2 Social psychology is the scientific study of how individuals think and feel about, interact with, and influence each other individually and in groups. Model for social behavior that social psychologists follow: Behavior = f (Individual characteristics x Social situation)
3 Individual characteristics are factors internal to the person e.g., personality, attitudes, biases Social situation comprises any factors external to the person e.g., presence of others, physical environment, culture Lewin s original model has been expanded Takes into account research findings
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5 More than any other branch of psychology, social psychology helps us understand everyday events Events in our own lives Interpersonal attraction Events that happen in the wider world Terrorism and other violence in the world
6 Social Cognition Social perception, construction of social reality, attribution processes, attitudes, prejudice Social Influence Persuasion, conformity, compliance, obedience, group processes Social Relations Interpersonal attraction, aggression, altruism Applied Social Psychology Health, law, conflict and conflict resolution, environmental psychology
7 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY focuses on individual behavior within the context of the immediate social situation (usually a small group) SOCIOLOGY looks at large-group behavior and systems in society BIOLOGY examines the role of genetics in behavior. ANTHROPOLOGY investigates the physical and cultural development of a species HISTORY determines how economic, political, and technological trends affect behavior
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9 Social psychology uses the scientific method The scientific method is the process of gathering information used to describe and explain behavior. Involves four steps: Identifying a phenomenon to study, Developing a testable research hypothesis, Designing a research study to test the hypothesis, Carrying out the research study.
10 Two research strategies are used in social psychology Correlational research Experimental research
11 In experimental research the researcher manipulates (i.e., changes the value of) one variable, and measures related changes in a second The variable manipulated is the independent variable (IV) The number of bystanders to an emergency (1, 3 or 5) The amount of alcohol a participant is exposed to in an aggression experiment (0 or 2 ounces) The value of the IV is independent of the subject s behavior The variable that is measured is the dependent variable (DV) How long it takes a bystander to offer help The level of aggression shown by participants
12 Random assignment used to ensure equivalence of groups before the experiment The simplest experiment includes one independent variable with two groups: The experimental group receives some treatment e.g., 2 ounces of alcohol are administered before an opportunity for aggression The control group does not receive the treatment serves as comparison group for the experimental group e.g., no alcohol is administered before opportunity for aggression
13 A well-designed experiment allows you to establish causal relationships between your independent and dependent variables Flaws in research may prevent this Extraneous variables (unmanipulated variables that could affect the outcome of an experiment) are controlled e.g., high temperature in the room Confounding variable: An extraneous variable that varies systematically with your independent variable Clouds a cause-effect relationship Must be identified before an experiment is conducted
14 Some terminology A factor is another term for an independent variable A one-factor experiment has one independent variable A two-factor experiment has two independent variables A level of an independent variable is another term for a group 0 and 2 ounces of alcohol represent two levels of the alcohol consumption independent variable 1, 3 or 5 bystanders represent three levels of the number of bystanders independent variable
15 A one-factor (one IV) experiment with two levels (groups) Experimental Group 2oz of alcohol Control Group 0oz of alcohol Participant 1 Participant 11 Participant 2 Participant 12 Participant 3 Participant 13 Participant 4 Participant 14 Participant 5 Participant 15 Participant 6 Participant 16 Participant 7 Participant 17 Participant 8 Participant 18 Participant 9 Participant 19 Participant 10 Participant 20
16 The basic experiment can be expanded Add levels (groups) of the independent variable For example, include a different dose of alcohol to subjects in different experimental groups Experimental Group 1 2oz of alcohol Experimental Group 2 3oz of alcohol Control Group 0oz of alcohol Participant 1 Participant 11 Participant 21 Participant 2 Participant 12 Participant 22 Participant 3 Participant 13 Participant 23 Participant 4 Participant 14 Participant 24 Participant 5 Participant 15 Participant 25 Participant 6 Participant 16 Participant 26 Participant 7 Participant 17 Participant 27 Participant 8 Participant 18 Participant 28 Participant 9 Participant 19 Participant 29 Participant 10 Participant 20 Participant 30
17 One-factor experiments are rarely seen Experiments usually include at least two IVs A factorial experiment includes more than one independent variable Dosage of alcohol (0 or 2 ounces) Whether participant is angered (Angered or Not Angered) Most experiments in social psychology are factorial experiments Mapping the experiment helps understand what was done
18 Alcohol Dose 2 ounces 0 ounces Angered Participant Anger Not Angered Angered/0 ounces Not Angered/0 ounces Angered/2 ounces Not Angered/2 ounces
19 Can evaluate the main effect of each independent variable The effect of alcohol on aggression (M 0oz vs. M 2oz ) Average all scores within each level of alcohol dose to obtain the row marginal means
20 Alcohol Dose 2 ounces 0 ounces Angered Participant Anger Not Angered Participant 1 Participant 2.. Participant 10 Participant 11 Participant 12.. Participant 20 M 0oz Participant 21 Participant 22.. Participant 30 Participant 31 Participant 32.. Participant 40 M 2oz
21 The main effect of anger on aggression (M angered vs. M not angered ) Average all scores within each level of alcohol dose to obtain the column marginal means
22 Alcohol Dose 2 ounces 0 ounces Angered Participant Anger Not Angered Participant 1 Participant 2.. Participant 10 Participant 21 Participant 22.. Participant 30 Participant 11 Participant 12.. Participant 20 Participant 31 Participant 32.. Participant 40 M Angered M Not Angered
23 Can evaluate the interaction between variables The effect of one variable changes over levels of a second Comparing the individual cell means Average of all scores within each cell Alcohol affects aggression when a person is angered but not when the person is not angered The effect of alcohol on aggression depends on whether participant is angry or not Unique to factorial experiment Most experiments designed to find interactions
24 Alcohol Dose 2 ounces 0 ounces Angered Participant Anger Not Angered M Angered/0oz M Not Angered/0oz M Angered/2oz M Not Angered/2oz
25 No significant difference between 0- and 2-ounce condition when not angered
26 Adding independent variables increases the complexity of an experiment Adding independent variables increases the number and complexity of possible interactions Complex interactions are difficult to analyze and interpret The number of participants required increases
27 Two or more variables are measured and a relationship is established The correlation coefficient (r) is used to evaluate relationships between variables The correlation coefficient can range from -1 (negative correlations) through 0 to +1 (positive correlations) Positive correlation The values of two variables increase or decrease in the same direction e.g., The more violent TV a child watches, the more aggressive is the child
28 Negative correlation The value of one variable increases and the value of a second decreases e.g., The greater the number of bystanders to an emergency, the less likely the victim will receive help The magnitude and sign of r give you independent information The magnitude of r tells you the degree of relationship (higher number = stronger correlation) The sign of r tells you the direction (positive or negative) the relationship r = -.78 is a stronger correlation than r = +.57
29 Uses of correlational research Finding relationships between real-world variables When a variable of interest cannot be manipulated In the early stages of research When you are studying subject variables (e.g., age, gender, race) These are always correlational variables Correlational research cannot establish a causal relationship between variables Two reasons for this:
30 The directionality problem: It is often difficult to state clearly the direction in which the causal arrow runs i.e., Does variable A cause changes in B, or does variable B cause changes in A? The third-variable problem: There may be another, unmeasured variable that is the actual cause for behavior
31 Correlational Research No independent variable(s) manipulated A descriptive relationship between variables explored Extraneous variables measured and controlled statistically Causal inferences cannot be drawn Experimental Research Independent variable(s) manipulated A causal relationship between variables explored Extraneous variables tightly controlled Causal relationships can be drawn
32 Basic research: Done primarily to test a theory (e.g., Does a prediction from balance theory hold) Applied research: Done to investigate a real-world problem (e.g., Does a defendant s race affect jury decisions) Laboratory research: Done in a tightly controlled laboratory environment Field research: Done in the subject s natural environment
33 A theory is a set of interrelated statements or propositions about the causes for a particular phenomenon A theory has several roles: Organizing research results Making predictions about how variables influence social behavior Giving direction to future research
34 A good theory: Is simple and explains a wide range of data Can be modified and updated with new information Drives future research through deducing new research hypotheses from the theory Examples of social psychological theories Cognitive dissonance theory Attribution theory Equity theory Social learning theory
35 The hindsight bias It may seem that social psychological research findings are obvious and the research needed not have been done Results appear obvious in hindsight Individuals can predict outcomes of research no better than chance
36 Exceptions to research findings do not invalidate the results Social psychologists compare average performance across groups Within any group there are some subjects who behave as expected, whereas others do not
37 No Bystanders Help Help No help Help Help Help No help No help Help Help Three Bystanders No help No help No help Help Help No help No help No help No help Help
38 Because social psychological research uses living organisms, research ethics are important Concern for how participants are treated in research Consider long-term effects of research participation on participants Social psychological research governed by APA code of ethics Important ethical principle is obtaining informed consent Participants informed of nature of study, requirements for participation, risks and benefits, and right to decline participation
39 Figures and Tables
40 Figure 1.1 An expanded model of social behavior. How we act in a given situation depends on input from the situation and individual characteristics that are mediated by the processes of social cognition and perception and the formation of an intention to behave in a certain way.
41 Figure 1.2 The scientific method used in social psychology begins with the identification of a problem to study and then moves to the formation of testable hypotheses. Next, a research study is designed and carried out.
42 Figure 1.3 The interaction between type of affect and focus of attention. Based on data from Oswald (2002).
43 Figure 1.4 Scatterplots showing correlations of different directions and strength: (a) correlation of 0 indicated by dots randomly arrayed; (b) strong positive correlation; (c) perfect positive correlation (+1) indicated by the dots lined up perfectly, sloping from bottom left to upper right; (d) strong negative correlation; (e) perfect negative correlation indicated by the dots lined up perfectly, sloping from upper left to lower right.
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