PSYCHOLOGY (8th Edition) David Myers PowerPoint Slides Aneeq Ahmad Henderson State University Worth Publishers, 2006 1 Thinking Critically with Psychological Science Chapter 1 2 Thinking Critically with Psychological Science The Need for Psychological Science The limits of Intuition and Common Sense The Scientific Attitude The Scientific Method 3 Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 1
Thinking Critically Description The Case Study The Survey Naturalistic Observation 4 Thinking Critically Correlation Correlation and Causation Illusory Correlation Perceiving Order in Random Events 5 Thinking Critically Experimentation Exploring Cause and Effect Evaluating Therapies Independent and Dependent Variables 6 Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 2
Thinking Critically Statistical Reasoning Describing Data Making Inferences FAQS About Psychology 7 Impression of Psychology Hoping to satisfy curiosity, many people listen to talk radio counselors and psychics to know about others and themselves. Dr. Crane (radio shrink) http://www.nbc.com Psychic (Ball gazing) http://www.photovault.com 8 The Need for Psychological Science Intuition & Common Sense Many of us believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth answers about human nature. Although intuitions and common sense may aid queries, they are not free of error. 9 Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 3
Personal interviewers tend to be overconfident of their gut feelings about job applicants. Limits of Intuition 10 Errors of Common Sense Try this! If you were to fold a piece of paper (0.1 mm thick) a 100 fold, how large do you think its thickness would be? 800,000,000,000,000 times the distance between the sun and the earth. 11 Hindsight Bias Hindsight Bias is the I knew it all along phenomenon. We tend to believe, after learning about an outcome, that we would have foreseen it. We knew that the dot.com stocks would plummet, only after they do. OBJECTIVE 1 Describe hindsight bias and explain how it can make research findings seem like mere common sense. Two phenomena hindsight bias and judgmental overconfidence illustrate why we cannot rely solely on intuition and common sense. Anything seems commonplace, once explained. Dr. Watson to Sherlock Holmes. 12 Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 4
Overconfidence We tend to think we know more than we actually do. How long do you think would it take to unscramble these anagrams? People said about 10 seconds. On average they took about 3 minutes (Goranson, 1978). WREAT ETYRN GRABE Anagram WATER ENTRY BARGE OBJECTIVE 2 Describe how overconfidence contaminates our everyday judgments. 13 Psychological Science 1. How can we differentiate between uniformed opinions and examined conclusions? 2. Science of psychology can help make these examined conclusions, which lead to our understanding what people feel, think, act, as they do! 14 The Scientific Attitude The scientific attitude is composed of curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and questioning) and humility (humbleness to accept when wrong). OBJECTIVE 3 Explain how the scientific attitude encourages critical thinking. 15 Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 5
Critical thinking does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Critical Thinking It examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, assesses conclusions. The Amazing Randi 16 Scientific Method Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize, summarize and simplify observations. OBJECTIVE 4 Describe how psychological theories guide scientific research. 17 Theory Theory is an explanation that integrates principles, organizes and predicts behaviors or events. For example, low self esteem contributes to depression. 18 If we were to observe that depressed people talk about their past, present, and future in a gloomy manner, we may theorize that low self esteem contributes to depression. Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 6
Hypothesis Hypothesis is a testable prediction, often induced by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory. People with low self esteem are apt to feel more depressed. 19 Research Observations Research would require us to administer tests of self esteem and depression to people. Individuals who score low on selfesteem measures and high on depression test, would confirm our hypothesis. 20 Research Process 21 Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 7
Description Case Study A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles. OBJECTIVE 5 Identify the advantages and disadvantages of case studies in studying behavior and mental processes. Is language uniquely human? 22 A clinical study is a form of case study where the therapist investigates the problems associated with a client. Case Study Clinical Study http://behavioralhealth.typepad.com 23 Survey A technique for ascertaining the self reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually by questioning a representative, random sample of people. OBJECTIVE 6 Identify the advantages and disadvantages of surveys in studying behavior and mental processes, and explain the importance of wording effects and random sampling. http://www.lynnefeatherstone.org 24 Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 8
Survey Wording Effect Wording can change the results of a survey. Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid) 25 Survey False Consensus Effect A tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors. 26 From a population if each member has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, we call that a random sample (unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are spurious. Survey Random Sampling The fastest way to know about the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them. 27 Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 9
Naturalistic Observation Observing and recording behavior of animals in the wild, to recording self seating patterns in lunch rooms in a multiracial school constitutes naturalistic observation. OBJECTIVE 7 Identify the advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation in studying behavior and mental processes. 28 Descriptive Methods Summary Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation all describe behaviors. 29 Correlation When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate. Indicates strength of relationship (0.00 to 1.00) OBJECTIVE 8 Describe positive and negative correlations and explain how correlational measures can aid the process of prediction. Correlation coefficient Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of relationship between two variables. r = + 0.37 Indicates direction of relationship (positive or negative) 30 Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 10
Scatterplots Perfect positive correlation (+1.00) Scatterplot is a graph that comprises of points generated by values of two variables. The slope of points depicts the direction, and the amount of scatter the strength of relationship. 31 Scatterplots Perfect negative correlation ( 1.00) No relationship (0.00) Scatterplot on the left shows a negative, and the one on the right shows no relationship between the two variables. 32 Data Data showing height and temperament in people. 33 Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 11
Scatterplot Scatterplot showing relationship between height and temperament in people with a moderate positive correlation of +0.63. 34 Correlation and Causation OBJECTIVE 9 Explain why correlational research fails to provide evidence of causeeffect relationships. or 35 Illusory Correlation The perception of a relationship where none exists. Parents conceive children after adoption. Adopt Do not adopt Conceive Confirming evidence Disconfirming evidence Do not conceive Disconfirming evidence Confirming evidence OBJECTIVE 10 Describe how people form illusory correlations. 36 Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 12
Order in Random Events Given random data we look for order, for meaningful patterns. Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960. 37 Order in Random Events Given large number of random outcomes, a few are likely to express order. OBJECTIVE 11 Explain the human tendency to perceive order in random events. Angelo and Maria Gallina won two California lottery games on the same day. 38 Experimentation Exploring Cause and Effect OBJECTIVE 12 Explain how experiments help researchers isolate cause and effect. Like other sciences, experimentation makes the backbone of research in psychology. Experiments isolate causes and their effects. 39 Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 13
Exploring Cause & Effect Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us while keeping other factors under (2) control. Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships. 40 Independent Variable Independent Variable is a factor, manipulated by the experimenter, and whose effect is being studied. For example, to study the effect of breast feeding on intelligence. Breast feeding is the independent variable. OBJECTIVE 14 Explain the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 41 Dependent Variable Dependent Variable is a factor that may change in response to independent variable. In psychology it is usually a behavior or a mental process. For example, in our study on the effect of breast feeding on intelligence. Intelligence is the dependent variable. 42 Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 14
Evaluating Therapies Double blind Procedure In evaluating drug therapies it important to keep the patients and experimenter s assistants blind to which patients got real treatment and which placebo. OBJECTIVE 13 Explain why random assignment and double blind procedure build confidence in research findings. 43 Evaluating Therapies Random Assignment Assigning participants to experimental (Breastfed) and control (formula fed) conditions by random assignment minimizes pre existing differences between the two groups. Sometime research participants out of enthusiasm or personal beliefs can affect the out come of an experiment. To control for such affects, a double blind procedure is used, in which the participants and the experimenter s assistants are not aware of which participants got real treatment and who got placebo. 44 Experimentation A summary of steps during experimentation. 45 Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 15
Comparison Below is a comparison of different research methods. 46 Statistical Reasoning Statistical procedures analyze and interpret data and let us see what the unaided eye misses. White 63% OBJECTIVE 15 Explain the importance of statistical principles, and give an example of their use in daily life. Others 4% Asian 7% Hispanic 10% Black 16% Composition of ethnicity in urban locales 47 Describing Data Meaningful description of data is important in research. Misrepresentation can lead to incorrect conclusions. OBJECTIVE 16 Explain how graphs can misrepresent data. 48 Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 16
Measures of Central Tendency Mode the most frequently occurring score in a distribution. Mean the arithmetic average of scores in a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by their number. Median the middle score in a rank ordered distribution. 49 OBJECTIVE 17 Describe three measures of central tendency and tell which is most affected by extreme scores. Measures of Central Tendency A Skewed Distribution 50 Measures of Variation OBJECTIVE 18 Explain two measures of variation. Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. Standard Deviation: A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean. 51 Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 17
Standard Deviation 52 Making Inferences A statistical statement of how likely an obtained result occurred by experimental manipulation or by chance. 53 Making Inferences When is an Observed Difference Reliable? 1. Representative samples are better than biased samples. 2. Less variable observations are more reliable than more variable ones. 3. More cases are better than fewer cases. OBJECTIVE 19 Identify three principles for making generalizations from samples. 54 Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 18
Making Inferences When is a Difference Significant? When sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large, we say the difference has statistical significance. For psychologists this difference is measured through alpha level set at 5 percent. OBJECTIVE 20 Explain how psychologists decide whether differences are meaningful. 55 FAQ Q1. Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life? Ans: Artificial laboratory conditions are created to study behavior in simplistic terms. The goal is to find underlying principles that govern behavior. OBJECTIVE 21 Explain the value of simplified laboratory conditions in discovering general principles of behavior. 56 FAQ Q2. Does behavior depend on one s culture? Ans: Even when specific attitudes and behaviors vary across cultures, as they often do, the underlying processes are much the same. OBJECTIVE 22 Discuss whether psychological research can be generalized across cultures and genders. 57 Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 19
FAQ Q3. Does behavior vary with gender? Ans: Yes. Biology determines our sex, and then culture further bends the genders. Yet in many ways woman and man are similarly human. 58 FAQ Q4. Why do psychologists study animals? Ans: Study of animals gives us the understanding of many behaviors that may have common biology across animals and humans. OBJECTIVE 23 Explain why psychologists study animals, and discuss the ethics of experimentation with both animals and humans. 59 FAQ Q5. Is it ethical to experiment on animals? Ans: Yes. To gain insights to devastating and fatal diseases. All researchers who deal with animal research are required to follow ethical guidelines in caring for these animals. 60 Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 20
FAQ Q6. Is it ethical to experiment on people? Ans: Yes. Experiments that do not involve any kind of physical or psychological harm that is beyond normal levels encountered in daily life can be carried out. 61 FAQ Q7. Is psychology free of value judgments? Ans: No. Psychology emerges from people who subscribe to a set of values and judgments. OBJECTIVE 24 Describe how personal values can influence psychologists research and its application, and discuss psychology s potential to manipulate people. 62 FAQ Q8. Is psychology potentially dangerous? Ans: It can be, but it is not. The purpose of psychology is to help humanity with its problems, like war, hunger, prejudice, crime, family dysfunction, etc. 63 Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 21