Lecture Six Research Ethics and Philosophies Institute of Professional Studies School of Research and Graduate Studies
Outline of Presentation Introduction Research Ethics Research Ethics to whom and from whom? Ethical Principles in Research Some Philosophical Issues 2
Introduction In conducting social science research, social scientist inevitably interact with people. As we interact with other people as social scientists we must give attention to their rational concerns and emotional needs which in one way or the other will shape their responses to our actions 3 We need to recognize that our research procedures involve people who deserve as much respect for their well-being as we do for ours. Thus, we should practice our discipline ethically.
What is Ethics in Research? As a matter of concern, ethics in research addresses the application of moral principles and/or ethical standards to human actions within the research process. Two question may be used to determine whether an action/inaction is ethical in research or not.these are: 1. Is it possible to restore the subject to his or her original condition? 2. Has the subject been subjected to unreasonable stress or risk without his or her knowledge? Beyond these questions there are some ethical principles that need to be observed. 4
Basic Ethical principles for the protection on human rights The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, in the United States, has establish three basic ethical principles to follow that will protect human subjects.these are: Respect for persons: Treating persons as autonomous agents and protecting those with diminished autonomy; Beneficence: Minimizing possible harms benefits; and and maximizing Justice: Distributing benefits and risks of research fairly. These broad principles have been translated into specific regulations. 5
Ethical Principles Cont d Achieving Valid Results Knowledge is the foundation of human progress and it is the pursuit of this in research that justifies our research or investigations and gives us some claim to the right to influence others to participate in our research. In the pursuit of the knowledge therefore we should be committed to achieving valid results that we can objectively and honestly claim represent the true picture. 6
Ethical Principles Cont d Honesty and Openness The scientific concern for validity also requires that scientists be open in disclosing their methods and honest in presenting their findings. To assess the validity of a researcher s conclusions and the ethics of their procedures, you need to know exactly how the research was conducted. This means that articles or other reports must include a detailed methodology section, perhaps supplemented by appendices containing the research instruments or Web sites or an address where more information can be obtained. 7
8 Ethical Principles Cont d Protecting Research Participants Ethical guidelines emphasized by most professional social science organizations concerning the treatment of human subjects include: 1. Research should cause no harm to subjects. 2. Participation in research should be voluntary, and therefore subjects must give their informed consent to participate in the research. 3. Researchers should fully disclose their identity. 4. Anonymity or confidentiality must be maintained for individual research participants unless it is voluntarily and explicitly waived. 5. Benefits from a research project should outweigh any foreseeable risks.
Research Philosophies Research philosophy relates to the development of knowledge and the nature of that knowledge. Research philosophies describe the researcher s perceptions, beliefs or assumptions about the nature of reality and truth (knowledge of that reality), 9
Importance of Research Philosophies They can influence the way in which the research is undertaken, from design through to conclusions. It is therefore important to understand and discuss these philosophies in order that approaches corresponding to the nature and aims of the particular inquiry are adopted, and to ensure that researcher biases are understood, exposed, and minimized. 10 The philosophy you adopt is more likely to be influenced by practical consideration. However, the main influence is likely to be your particular view of the relationship between knowledge and the process by which it is developed.
Research Philosophies Cont d There are three major ways of thinking about research philosophy: 1. Epistemology 2. Ontology 3. Axiology 11
Epistemology Epistemology concerns what constitute acceptable knowledge in a field of study Epistemology considers views about the most appropriate ways of enquiring into the nature of the world (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe and Jackson, 2008) and what is knowledge and what are the sources and limits of knowledge (Eriksson and Kovalainen, 2008). 12 Blaikie (1993) describes epistemology as the theory or science of the method or grounds of knowledge expanding this into a set of claims or assumptions about the ways in which it is possible to gain knowledge of reality, how what exists may be known, what can be known, and what criteria must be satisfied in order to be described as knowledge.
Epistemology Cont d Three kinds of research philosophies can be identified. Blaikie (2000) describes them as the research examples. 1. Positivism 2. Realism and 3. Interpretivism 13
14 Positivism If your research philosophy reflects the principles of positivism then you will probably adopt the philosophical stance of the natural scientist which is characterised by the testing of hypothesis developed from existing theory (hence deductive or theory testing) through measurement of observable social realities. The positivist assumes that: i. the social world exists objectively and externally ii. knowledge is valid only if it is based on observations of external reality iii. iv. universal or general laws exist (or that theoretical models can be developed that are generalisable) It is possible to explain cause and effect relationships which lend themselves to predicting outcomes.
Realism Realism is another epistemological position which relates to scientific enquiry just like positivism. The essence of realism is that what the senses show us as reality is the truth: that objects have an existence independent of the mind. Two forms of realism need to b explained: Direct realism: which says that what you see is what you get: what we experience through our senses portrays the world accurately Critical realism: which says that what we experience are sensations, the images of the things in the real world, not the things directly 15
Interpretivism Interpretivists argue that the social world of business and management is far too complex to lend itself to theorising by definite laws in the same way as the physical sciences. This position is described by Hatch and Cunliffe (2006) as antipositivist and by Blaikie (1993) as post-positivist since it is contended that there is a fundamental difference between the subject matters of natural and social sciences. 16 The focus of the researcher is on understanding the meanings and interpretations of social actors and to understand their world from their point of view, is highly contextual and hence is not widely generalisable (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2007).
Interpretivism Cont d Interpretivism comes from two intellectual traditions: Phenomenology and symbolic interactionism Phenomenology refers to the way in which we as humans make sense of the world around us. In symbolic interactionism we are a continual process of interpreting the social world around us in that we interpret the actions of others with whom we interact and this interpretation leads to adjustment or our own meanings and actions. 17
Ontology Ontology is concerned with nature of reality. Blaikie (1993) describes the root definition of ontology as the science or study of being and develops this description for the social sciences to encompass claims about what exists, what it looks like, what units make it up and how these units interact with each other. In short, ontology describes our view (whether claims or assumptions) on the nature of reality, and specifically, is this an objective reality that really exists, or only a subjective reality, created in our minds. 18
Ontology Cont d There are two aspects of ontology: The first is objectivism which portrays the position that social entities exist in reality external to social actors concerned with their existence. The second is aspect is subjectivism which holds that social phenomena are created from the perceptions and consequent actions of those social actors concerned with their existence. 19
Axiology Axiology is the branch of philosophy that studies judgements about value. The role that your own values play in all stages of the research process is of great importance if you wish your research results to be credible. Heron (1996) argues that our values are the guiding reasons of all human action. He further argues that research demonstrates axiological skill by being able to articulate their values as a basis for making judgements about what research they are conducting and how they go about doing it. 20