A Longitudinal Study of Recreational Sport Participation and Constraints

Recreational Sports Journal, 2013, 37, 14-28 2013 Nirsa Foundation Official Journal of the NIRSA Foundation www.rsj-journal.com ORIGINAL RESEARCH A Longitudinal Study of Recreational Sport Participation and Constraints Laura M. Spivey and Nancy M. Hritz Knowledge of what encourages and limits recreational experiences is essential to an overall healthy lifestyle and promotion of long term wellness. Findings from 1857 surveys in this longitudinal study suggest students enrolled at a midsize, Southeastern university experience limited constraints to their recreational sport participation, and identify with many positive benefits of regular recreational sport and fitness participation. Most respondents identified highly with the benefits of recreational sports participation. Notably, they identified with improved fitness (73.3%), development of healthy lifestyle habits (66.4%), enhanced mood (71.5%), and improved attitude toward fitness (69.4%). The respondents did not identify with many limits, or constraints to participation with the exception of time. 54% agreed or strongly agreed they did not have enough time to participate. Only 12% agreed or strongly agreed that their participation was due to lack of a support network. Keywords: college students, physical activity, healthy lifestyle, attitudes toward fitness Creating healthy lifestyle behaviors is a growing concern for those programming recreation, physical activity, and health initiatives at the university level. College students who participate in health related activities are more likely to carry these behaviors into later adulthood (Leslie, Sparling, & Owen, 2001; Malina, 2001). Convenient and attractive campus recreation and wellness facilities ensure universities are well positioned to positively influence healthy lifestyle behaviors. In an effort to better understand students participation patterns and constraints to participation in recreational sport settings, this study investigated benefits and limitations students identify in regards to participation in campus recreational sports. Literature Review Research on physical activity reveals the importance of participation for adolescents and adults (Keating, Guan, Pinero, & Bridges, 2005; Miller, Noland, Rayens & Staten, 2008; Warburton, Nicol, & Bredin, 2006). Physical activity has been proven The authors are with the School of Health and Applied Human Sciences, University of North Carolina Wilmington. 14

Sport Participation and Constraints 15 to provide numerous and significant health benefits across the lifespan (Macera, Hootman, & Sniezek, 2003). Yet, many college students do not meet the minimum recommendations for physical activity (Butler, Black, Blue, & Gretebeck, 2004; Egli, Bland, Melton, & Czech, 2011; McArthur & Raedeke, 2009; Miller et al., 2008), which is compounded with unhealthy diets (Haung, Harris, Lee, Nazier, Born, & Kaur, 2003; Racette, Deusinger, Strube, Highstein, & Deusinger, 2008). These trends are significant as health and physical activity patterns established during the young adult years may be important predictors of adult habits and long-term health (Leslie, Sparling, & Owen, 2001; Malina, 2001; McArthur & Raedeke, 2009). Previous research assessing college seniors found that those who exercise regularly were still physically active five or 10 years later (Keating et al., 2005). This trend was also apparent for those students that were not active as college seniors as 81.3% maintained a sedentary lifestyle (2005), indicating many college students in young adulthood are developing sedentary lifestyle habits, which may persist throughout adulthood (Leslie, Sparling, & Owen, 2001; McArthur & Raedeke, 2009). Some studies suggest a decline in physical activity participation during the college years (Leslie, Sparling, & Owen, 2001). However, reasons for this decline or insufficient activity levels, including participation constraints, have varied by study (Brown, 2005; Keating et al., 2005; Leslie, Sparling, & Owen, 2001; Young, Ross, & Barcelona, 2003). A variety of factors impacted students who were insufficiently active including, lower social support from family or friends and lower enjoyment of an activity (Leslie, Sparling, & Owen, 2001). Asian and African American students were the least active groups (McArthur & Raedeke, 2003), compared with white and Hispanic students (Keating et al., 2005). Social support was found to be important to females. Females reported support from family as very important while males listed support from friends as very important (Keating et al., 2005; Petosa, Suminski, & Hortz, 2003). Employment status and age were also factors as unemployed females were less active compared with males who were less active if they were older (nontraditional) students (Leslie, Sparling, & Owen, 2001). Lack of participation in physical activity and recreational sport programs may be due to a variety of perceived leisure constraints (Young, Ross, & Barcelona, 2003). Many students indicated a lack of time as the most perceived constraint to recreational sport participation, while others indicated a lack of knowledge of recreational sport offerings on campus. While individuals perceive constraints differently, understanding broad patterns within a setting can provide recreation and physical activity programmers with knowledge to reduce perceived constraints (2003). Most college campuses provide students with a variety of options for physical activity along with increased education and promotion of health, wellness, and the benefits of a physically active lifestyle (Brown, 2005; Forrester, Arterberry, & Barcelona, 2006; Leslie, Sparling, & Owen, 2001). Despite compelling research outlining the benefits of physical activity, many college students are getting significantly less physical activity than recommended (Egli, Bland, Melton, & Czech, 2011; Petosa, Suminski, & Hortz, 2003) even with attractive and convenient campus recreation facilities. A greater understanding of why students decide to participate or not participate in recreational sport activities is crucial to those planning and implementing programs and services on university campuses.

16 Spivey and Hritz Aim of the Study The aim of this study was to investigate a) a profile of student participation in campus recreational sport activities, b) the benefits and limitations students identify with participation in campus recreational sports, c) differences between high and low user groups of campus recreational sports, and d) differences in class designation and the benefits and limits of participation in campus recreational sports. Methodology Participants were asked to complete a paper and pencil survey entitled Examining the Impact of Recreational Sports Involvement During College. The selfadministered survey contained modified items from Young, Ross, and Barcelona (2003) and categories described by Mull, Bayless and Jamieson (2005). The data for this study was collected from the fall semester of 2007 to the spring semester of 2008. The sample was taken of students at a four-year university in the southeastern part of the United States. Convenience sampling was used to capture as many participants as possible. Participants were approached randomly on campus during the week between 8 AM and 5 PM by students enrolled in an undergraduate research methods course. Potential participants were approached, asked if they had participated in the study before, and after consent given a survey to complete. Section 1 asked the basic demographic information of gender, class designation, and ethnicity. Section 2 inquired of participation in various recreational sports on campus. These included club sports (ice hockey, soccer), group exercise, fitness and conditioning sessions, informal sports (pick-up basketball), intramural team sports (basketball, football, softball, volleyball), intramural individual sports (racquetball, tennis), and strength and conditioning (use of the weight rooms, treadmills, cardio equipment). These were presented on a five-point Likert type scale with 1 = never participated to 5 = very often participate. The categories were based on those explained by Mull, Bayless, and Jamieson (2005) and included examples of activities currently offered by the university. Section 3 investigated the benefits and constraints (presented as limits ) to participation in recreational sports. These were also evaluated on a five-point Likert type scale with 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. The benefits and constraints were borrowed from the Young, Ross, and Barcelona s (2003) study. Results After all data collection periods, a total of 1857 surveys were obtained. Frequencies and percentages with the demographic questions were calculated to present an accurate picture of the sample. When looking at all the participants, gender was even with 50.5% females and 49.5% males. Participants were more likely to be sophomores (26.2%) or juniors (27.4%), and least likely to be graduate students (3.3%); however, freshman and seniors are well represented. A little more than 75% of the survey participants were of Caucasian ethnicity (75.8%). Although not matching perfectly, this is reflective of the university s student population. According to the Chancellor s report (2011) during the time this data were collected, 83%

Sport Participation and Constraints 17 of the student population was Caucasian, 60% were females, with 19% freshman, 22.1% sophomores, 25.1% juniors, 30.9% seniors, and 9% graduate students. More surveys were collected in the spring 2008 than previous semesters; however, this was more a reflection on the class size of students enrolled in the research methods course than student s willingness to participate in the study. Table 1 shows a complete description of the sample. Means and standard deviations were compiled for the perceived benefits and constraints to participation in recreational sports activities for the entire sample. This can be found in Table 2. For each semester of data collection with the exception of fall 2006, participants expressed the benefit of enhanced my mood as the mostly highly ranked reason for participating in recreational sports. Closely following were improved fitness, and improved my attitude toward fitness for the entire sample. In the fall of 2006, participants believed improved fitness (3.86) was most important, with improved my attitude toward fitness (3.76) and enhanced my Table 1 Demographic Profile of the Respondents N % Gender Female 938 50.5 Male 919 49.5 Class designation Freshman 404 21.8 Sophomore 486 26.2 Junior 509 27.4 Senior 396 21.3 Graduate 62 3.3 Ethnicity Caucasian or white 1407 75.8 African American or Black 210 11.3 Asian 90 4.8 Hispanic or Latino American 74 4.0 Other 76 4.1 Semester Fall 2006 234 12.6 Spring 2007 425 22.9 Fall 2007 573 30.9 Spring 2008 625 33.7 Note. Percentages based on those who reported; some survey participants may have left information blank.

18 Spivey and Hritz Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations (SD) for Benefits and Limitations Fall 2006 Spring 2007 Fall 2007 Spring 2008 Benefits Improved fitness 3.86 (.882) 3.79 (.976) 3.71 (.975) 3.85 (.931) Improved self-confidence 3.63 (.864) 3.71 (.971) 3.68 (.930) 3.75 (.895) Develop healthy lifestyle habits 3.66 (.912) 3.65 (1.05) 3.70 (.940) 3.72 (.951) Improved acceptance by others 3.27 (.959) 3.29 (1.12) 3.31 (.998) 3.40 (.972) Enhanced my mood 3.75 (.881) 3.82 (1.00) 3.81 (.946) 3.91 (.867) Improved my attitude toward 3.76 (.893) 3.71 (1.01) 3.77 (.982) 3.88 (.927) fitness Limits Self-conscious exercising in 2.52 (1.16) 2.51 (1.22) 2.54 (1.12) 2.40 (1.09) front of others Not enough fitness equipment 2.58 (1.06) 2.73 (1.16) 2.74 (1.11) 2.84 (1.17) Unsure about how to get 2.56 (1.07) 2.48 (1.10) 2.59 (1.04) 2.56 (1.00) involved Not enough time 3.42 (1.18) 3.34 (1.24) 3.27 (1.17) 3.16 (1.15) Too much time from significant 2.07 (1.21) 2.40 (1.12) 2.35 (1.12) 2.38 (1.08) other Lack of support network (family and friends) 2.22 (1.06) 2.19 (1.06) 2.27 (1.04) 2.10 (.953) Note. Based on the scale 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = undecided, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree. mood (3.75) second and third most important. In the spring 2007, enhanced my mood (3.82) was deemed as most important, with improved fitness (3.79) as second most important. Closely following was improved self confidence (3.71) and improved my attitude toward fitness (3.71). Fall 2007 participants also believed enhanced my mood (3.81) as the largest benefit of participating in recreational sports with improved my attitude toward fitness (3.77) and improved fitness (3.71) as the second and third most beneficial reasons. The spring 2008 participants felt similarly as the fall 2007 students, with enhanced my mood (3.91) as the highest benefit and improved my attitude toward fitness (3.88) and improved fitness (3.85) as second and third most important. In the constraints section, there was more agreement among participants across the semesters. Participants rated not enough time as the top reason for not being able to participate in recreational sports (fall 2006 = 3.42, spring 2007 = 3.34, fall 2007 = 3.27, and spring 2008 = 3.16). The second highest rated reason for limiting their involvement was not enough fitness equipment (fall 2006 = 2.58, spring 2007 = 2.73, fall 2007 = 2.74, spring 2008 = 2.84). To identify user groups for each of the recreational sport activities, responses were collapsed into two categories to create high and low user groups. Those stating never or on occasion comprised the low user group and those responding often and very often were combined into a high user group. The most popular

Sport Participation and Constraints 19 activities were strength and conditioning activities that included using the weight room, cardiovascular equipment such as treadmills, stationary bicycles, and other cardio equipment. The second activity with the highest reported usage was informal sports such as pickup basketball games. The activity with the lowest reported usage was intramural individual sports such as racquetball and tennis activities. A complete breakdown can be found in Table 3. To examine the different recreational sports activities more carefully among the high and low user groups, averages for the benefits and constraints to participating in the activities were compiled and can be found in Tables 4 and 5. For each activity for the high user group, with the exception of club sports, the benefit of enhanced my mood was the highest scoring benefit. In other words, those individuals who participate in recreational sports more often feel they are in a better mood for participating. The high users who participate in club sports cited improved attitude toward fitness as their most important benefit. Those in the low users category also stated enhanced my mood as the most important benefit for participation; however, the low user group in intramural team sports stated developed healthy lifestyle habits as the strongest reason for their participation. For the barriers or constraints to participation, both high and low user groups for each recreational sports activity cited not enough time as the biggest barrier to their participation. Next, t tests for independent samples were calculated to examine for any statistical differences among the means between high and low user groups for each of the recreational sport activities. These are displayed in Tables 6 and 7. Three of the recreational activity groups group exercise, informal sports, and intramural team sports had statistical significance for all the benefits included in the survey. In other words, high and low user groups differed in their opinions of the benefits offered for these activities. Not surprisingly, high users were more likely to identify with the benefits and place a higher emphasis on them than nonusers. In the remaining recreational sport activities, this held mostly true. For the strength and conditioning activity, high and low users did not differ in their views on the benefit of improved acceptance by others (t = 6.07). For club sports, the high and low users significantly differed in only two of the benefits: improved fitness (t = 4.05) and improved attitude toward fitness (t = 5.31). Here too, high users reported more of a benefit in these areas than nonusers. There was only one recreational activity, individual intramural sports, in which the high and low user groups did not differ. This may be explained as this activity had the fewest numbers of individuals actively participating, and was the least popular among the other activities. There was not as much consistency when the constraints were examined. The limitation, lack of support network, was significant among the high and low users, although high and low users differed on who experienced more of a lack in their support network among the activities. For the activities of club sports, informal sports, and intramural individual sports, low users did feel more of the constraint than high users in the same category. However, for the activities of group exercise and strength and conditioning, high users experienced more of the constraint of a lack of support network than the low users. Another constraint, too much time away from significant other, produced significant differences among the high and low users in four of the activities: club sports, group exercise, intramural team sports, and intramural individual sports.

Table 3 High and Low User Group Frequencies and % by Activity Group Low participation High participation Club sports Fall 2006 193 41 Spring 2007 337 73 Fall 2007 493 66 Spring 2008 539 79 Totals 1562 (85.8%) 259 (14.2%) Group exercise, fitness Fall 2006 196 36 Spring 2007 340 76 Fall 2007 493 66 Spring 2008 538 86 Totals 1567 (85.6%) 264 (14.4%) Informal sports Fall 2006 191 39 Spring 2007 341 77 Fall 2007 494 65 Spring 2008 537 85 Totals 1563 (85.5%) 266 (14.5%) Intramural team sports Fall 2006 193 40 Spring 2007 342 75 Fall 2007 497 62 Spring 2008 536 83 Totals 1568 (85.8%) 260 (14.2%) Intramural individual sports Fall 2006 195 37 Spring 2007 344 73 Fall 2007 499 61 Spring 2008 538 81 Totals 1576 (86.2%) 252 (13.8%) Strength and conditioning Fall 2006 192 39 Spring 2007 337 83 Fall 2007 491 68 Spring 2008 536 84 Totals 1566 (85.1%) 274 (14.9%) 20

Table 4 Means for High and Low User Activity Groups for Benefits Club sports Group exercise Informal sports Intramural team Intramural individual Strength and conditioning Benefit High Low High Low High Low High Low High Low High Low Improved fitness 4.00 3.76 4.04 3.71 3.98 3.69 4.01 3.73 3.85 3.80 4.02 3.56 Improved self-confidence 3.88 3.66 3.95 3.62 3.86 3.60 3.91 3.62 3.88 3.76 3.91 3.50 Developed healthy lifestyle habits 3.89 3.64 3.94 3.60 3.87 3.57 3.61 3.90 3.86 3.66 3.92 3.46 Improved acceptance by others 3.63 3.24 3.49 3.26 3.46 3.23 3.55 3.21 3.61 3.27 3.46 3.17 Enhanced my mood 3.96 3.81 4.06 3.76 3.99 3.76 4.01 3.78 3.96 3.83 4.06 3.63 Improved attitude toward fitness (physical 4.04 3.74 4.01 3.71 3.95 3.70 3.96 3.71 3.92 3.76 4.01 3.56 activities) 21

Table 5 Means for High and Low User Activity Groups for Limits Club sports Group exercise Informal sports Intramural team Intramural individual Strength and conditioning Limit High Low High Low High Low High Low High Low High Low Self-conscious exercising in front of others 2.40 2.50 2.48 2.48 2.33 2.59 2.34 2.53 2.58 2.45 2.37 2.59 Not enough fitness equipment 2.96 2.71 2.85 2.71 2.75 2.76 2.77 2.74 2.82 2.74 2.83 2.70 Unsure how to get involved 2.48 2.56 2.44 2.59 2.46 2.59 2.50 2.54 2.73 2.50 2.45 2.65 Not enough time 3.23 3.28 3.27 3.29 3.23 3.31 3.18 3.31 3.26 3.29 3.24 3.30 Too much time from significant other 2.48 2.38 2.34 2.44 2.41 2.41 2.39 2.40 2.69 2.36 2.33 2.50 Lack of support network (family and friends) 2.19 2.16 2.15 2.17 2.21 2.15 2.17 2.15 2.38 2.12 2.07 2.27 22

Table 6 Independent Samples t Test of High and Low Users for Each Activity and Benefits to Participation Club sports Group exercise Informal sports Intramural team Intramural individual Strength and conditioning Benefit SD t p SD t p SD t p SD t p SD t p SD t p Improved fitness.931 4.05.009.954 6.62.000.966 6.13.000.958 5.73.000.927.942.424 990 10.3.000 Improved selfconfidence.902 4.04.838.915 6.95.000.924 5.80.000.938.5.89.000.918 3.30.052.971 9.24.000 Developed healthy.956 4.31.139.955 6.88.000.980 6.25.000.966 5.83.000.953 3.11.342.985 10.1.000 lifestyle habits Improved acceptance.999 6.30.717.973 4.29.004.982 4.75.000.998 6.30.027 1.00 5.03.965 1.01 6.07.372 by others Enhanced my.909 2.64.564.919 6.27.028.941 5.07.000.955 4.67.000.916 1.97.308.970 9.89.000 mood Improved attitude.962.5.31.002.967 6.02.000.967 5.37.001.967 4.88.000.955 2.44.293 1.01 9.80.000 toward fitness (physical activities) 23

Table 7 Independent Samples t Test of High and Low Users for Each Activity and Limits to Participation Club sports Group exercise Informal sports Intramural team Intramural individual Strength and conditioning Limit SD t p SD t p SD t p SD t p SD t p SD t p Self conscious 1.11 1.48.140 1.12.006.459 1.14 4.47.032 1.12 3.20.218 1.12 1.65.066 1.10 4.12.976 exercising in front of others Not enough fitness 1.12 3.56.029 1.10 2.30.001 1.13.030.269 1.10.618.011 1.13 1.12.344 1.06 2.69.000 equipment Unsure how to be 1.03 1.13.583 1.03 2.55.961 1.02 2.50.358.997.618.003 1.01 3.36.000 1.00 4.12.305 involved Not enough time 1.19.676.550 1.17.290.361 1.18 1.27.786 1.18 2.19.871 1.16.422.010 1.18 1.05.272 Too much time 1.09 1.49.002 1.08 1.73.042 1.09.057.164 1.09.009.031 1.08 4.43.000 1.09 3.16.969 away from significant other Lack of support.985.476.037.963.361.005.970 1.27.005.975.455.218.964.387.000.986 4.12.027 network 24

Sport Participation and Constraints 25 Interestingly, there was a split in the activities in which high and low users felt more of the barrier. For the club sports and intramural individual sports, low users felt more of the limitation. Group exercise and intramural team sport high users felt the limitation of too much time away from their significant other. The barrier, lack of fitness equipment, also had differences among the high and low users in the different activities. Club sports, group exercise, intramural team sports, and strength and conditioning high users all felt more of the limitation than low users. This could be explained as those who are high users in a particular activity are more aware of the equipment needs and their lack of availability. In addition, the limitation of self conscious exercising in front of others had a significant difference in high and low users in the informal sports category. High users reported this as a higher constraint than low users. In other words, high users felt more self-conscious then the low users. This could be due to those who participate in informal sports, such as pick-up basketball, being more aware of others around them than those who do not participate as often. Lastly, high users also reported a higher limitation than low users with unsure how to be involved with intramural team sports. However, with intramural individual sports low users stated they did not know how to be involved more than the high user group. To examine any influences class designation (freshman, sophomore, junior, senior, graduate) may have on a participant s perception of the benefits and limitations to each activity, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) test was performed. These are displayed in Table 8. There were a number of significant differences found. Table 8 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of Class Rank and Scores on Benefits and Limits Benefits Improved fitness 1.656.158 Improved self-confidence 2.809.024 Develop healthy lifestyle habits 2.484.042 Improved acceptance by others 3.387.009 Enhanced my mood 2.663.031 Improved my attitude toward fitness 2.311.056 Limits Self-conscious exercising in front of others 3.833.004 Not enough fitness equipment 6.041.000 Unsure about how to get involved.511.728 Not enough time 4.059.003 Too much time from significant other 2.684.030 Lack of support network (family and friends).437.782 Note. df = 4. F p

26 Spivey and Hritz The benefits of improved self-confidence, develop healthy lifestyle habits, improved acceptance by others, and enhanced my mood were all significant. Post hoc Tukey HSD tests were performed to examine these differences. For each significant benefit with the exception of improved acceptance by others graduate students and seniors differed significantly. An examination of the means among the class levels showed that senior level students scored the benefit higher than the graduate student. In other words, seniors felt that participation in recreational activities leads to improved self-confidence, healthier lifestyle habits and a better overall mood than the graduate students. For the improved acceptance by others benefit, post hoc tests revealed that sophomore level students and graduate students differed. As before, undergraduate level students felt more of a benefit of improved acceptance of others by involvement in recreational sports than graduate students. In the barriers to participation four items had significant differences in the ANOVA tests. The limits of self-conscious exercising in front of others, not enough fitness equipment, not enough time, and too much time away from significant other were significant. Post hoc Tukey HSD tests for these limitations show that seniors and freshman differed from one another and their identification of the barrier to participation. An examination of the means here revealed seniors felt more limitations than freshman in the availability of fitness equipment, time constraints, and too much time away from a significant other. On the other hand, freshman felt more self-conscious exercising in front of others than the seniors. Discussion Most respondents from this study identified highly with the benefits of recreational sports participation. Notably, participants identified with improved fitness (73.3%), development of healthy lifestyle habits (66.4%), enhanced mood (71.5%), and improved attitude toward fitness (69.4%). These findings may be supported by previous research assessing participation (Keating, Guan, Pinero, & Bridges, 2005; Leslie et al., 2001). The low user group also identified with the benefits of participation, yet, this was not a factor in influencing these students to be more physically active. As other research indicates, knowledge of exercise benefits has not been associated with physical activity behavior (McArthur & Raedeke, 2009). Findings from this study suggest the most popular activities were strength and conditioning workouts that included using the weight room, cardiovascular equipment such as treadmills, stationary bicycles, and other cardio equipment. The second activity with the highest reported usage was informal sports such as pickup basketball games. Previous research has indicated that students get involved with physical activities they feel competent performing (Keating et al., 2005). Thus, creating fitness or sport opportunities where students can feel competent and successful may promote participation. Recreational sport professionals can also encourage and foster skill development that contributes to increased competence. Students in this study indicated not enough time and not enough fitness equipment as two primary constraints to participation. Not enough time and lack of motivation have been identified in other research as constraints to participation for adults (Petosa et al., 2003; Young, Ross, & Barcelona 2003). Schools can attempt to minimize the not enough time constraint by offering convenient

Sport Participation and Constraints 27 and diverse recreational options for students. However, most institutions already provide numerous opportunities including convenient hours of operation, multiple and varied recreational facilities, and outdoor recreational space. It may be that students who selected not enough time may not view recreational sport participation as a priority. Overall, this study suggests students experience limited constraints to their recreational sport participation and identify with many positive benefits of regular recreational sport and fitness participation. Conclusion Recreational sport professionals have a growing responsibility to understand college students recreational participation patterns. As research continues to show physical activity patterns established in young adulthood are often carried into adulthood, practitioners are challenged to overcome constraints to enhance students quality of life now and in the future. This study provides additional information for recreational sport administrators, including a greater understanding of how individuals view benefits to participation and potential constraints. Knowledge of what encourages and limits recreational experiences is essential to campus recreational sports providers as they are challenged to facilitate increased physical activity levels and the adoption of an active lifestyle. This study is limited to one university setting in the United States. Other studies have found constraints for nonparticipants differ according to a specific campus (Young, Ross, & Barcelona, 2003). Further research should explore other geographical areas to gain a better understanding of the benefits and constraints experienced by participants. In addition, a qualitative approach might also better help program administrators gain a deeper perspective on the constraints students might experience. This approach could offer unique perspectives to challenges facing individual campuses. Lastly, research in this area might capture benefits and constraints more accurately if data were collected while the individual was participating in the activity itself or shortly after. References Brown, S.A. (2005). Measuring perceived benefits and perceived barriers for physical activity. American Journal of Health Behavior, 29(2), 107 116. doi:10.5993/ajhb.29.2.2 Butler, S.M., Black, D.R., Blue, C.L., & Gretebeck, R.J. (2004). Change in diet, physical activity, and body weight in female college freshman. American Journal of Health Behavior, 28(1), 24 32. doi:10.5993/ajhb.28.1.3 Egli, T., Bland, H.W., Melton, B.F., & Czech, D.R. (2011). Influence of age, sex, and race on college students motivation of physical activity. Journal of American College Health, 59(5), 399 406. doi:10.1080/07448481.2010.513074 Forrester, S., Arterberry, C., & Barcelona, B. (2006). Student attitudes toward sports and fitness activities after graduation. Recreational Sports Journal, 30, 87 99. Huang, T., Harris, K., Lee, R., Nazier, N., Born, W., & Kaur, H. (2003). Assessing overweight, obesity, diet, and physical activity in college students. Journal of American College Health, 52, 83 87. doi:10.1080/07448480309595728

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