Question 1: What is the purpose of a root? A root in a medical term is the basic meaning of the term. Roots refer to body parts or systems of the body. Body systems include skin, muscular, digestive, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, reproductive, skeletal, urinary, respiratory, and lymphatic. A root can refer to a joint within the skeletal system, as in the root arth, or it can refer to the heart or that whole system, as in the root cardi. If it refers to the heart specifically, the medical term may be cardiac; and if it refers to the circulatory system, the medical term may be cardiovascular (sounds like car dee o vas q ler). You can usually determine what the root is referring to by looking at the suffix and prefix and the context of the use of the term. In the term electrocardiogram (a specific measurement of the electrical impulses that cause the heart to beat), the root cardi is referring specifically to the heart itself. In the term cardiovascular, cardi is combined with another root, vascul, meaning (blood) vessel; hence, this term refers to the circulatory system, which includes the heart and blood vessels. Question 2: What is the purpose of a suffix? When a suffix occurs in a medical term, it occurs after the root. It modifies the root and usually refers to a function of the root or a particular kind of medical condition that is applied to the root. For example, in the medical term cardiovascular, the root cardi means heart, and it is combined with the suffix -ac, which means pertaining to something; therefore, the medical term cardiac means specifically pertaining to the heart. In the term cardiomegaly (sounds like car dee o meg a ly), the root cardi is paired with the suffix -megaly, which means enlargement; therefore, the suffix modifies the root cardi differently to create a new use of the root cardi, and meaning heart enlargement. The root for the nervous system is neur, and with the combining vowel of o and the suffix of -ologist, the word refers to a physician who specializes in the study and treatment of conditions of the nervous system. Question 3: What is the purpose of a prefix? "Prefixes usually modify the root in terms of numbers, colors, degree, size, 1
time, position or negative" (Cohen, 2004), such as something that is opposite, or "the absence of something, and direction or position" (Davis, 2002). For example, look at the medical term pericarditis (sounds like pear e car di tis). The prefix peri- means around the root, the root card means heart, and the suffix -itis means inflammation. So the root of cardi is modified by the prefix to describe what area of the heart the term is referring to, and that area is around the heart; consequently the term means inflammation around the heart. Look at the word endocardial (sounds like end o car de al). The root is again cardi, which means heart, and the suffix -al means pertaining to something. The prefix end- means within, describing the position of something. Question 4: Why should the analysis of a medical term start with the suffix? The root is the main part of a medical term upon which prefixes and suffixes work to modify the meaning. Therefore, an analysis of a medical term that starts with the root will be somewhat generic. The suffix modifies the root to be more specific and clarifies how the root will be interpreted. The root cardi, which means heart, is relatively nonspecific in terms of what about the heart will be the focus of the medical term. By looking at the suffix of the medical term first, one can determine if the focus of the word will be a condition of something or a function of something. Then, one can approach the root knowing in what context it will be used. Another example is the medical term cardiomegaly (sounds like car dee o meg ly), in which megaly means enlargement; the focus of the root cardi is now on a certain condition of the heart. Take the medical term cardiologist (where - logist means specialist): for this particular suffix, the focus of the root is now on someone who is a specialist in the study and treatment of people with a heart illness. The suffix -ectomy means to cut something out; so by looking at the suffix, you will immediately know that there is some surgical procedure involved. It is more useful to initially know the context of the medical term that the various suffixes show, and then determine what the root is. Question 5: What are other rules of when to use a combining vowel? 2
"When a root is followed by a suffix, a combining vowel is used only when the suffix begins with a consonant" (Davis, 2002). For example, consider the term rhinoplasty (sounds like rhine oh plas tea). The root is rhin (meaning nose), and the suffix is -plasty (meaning surgical reconstruction). Because the suffix starts with a consonant, a combining vowel is placed between the root and suffix to form the word rhinoplasty. "If the suffix starts with a vowel, there is no combining vowel between the root and the suffix" (Davis, 2002). In the example of hepatitis, the suffix -itis starts with a vowel; therefore, adding a combining vowel between the root hepat and the suffix is not necessary. "A combining vowel may also be used between two roots" (Davis, 2002). Look at the term arthritis (sounds like are thry tis) as an example, and add another root of oste, which means bone. Just combining these two roots and the suffix results in the term ostearthritis, whose pronunciation does not flow as smoothly until there is an o put between the two roots to form the term osteoarthritis (sounds like oss tea oh are thry tis). This is a medical problem related to an inflammation of the bone and joint. Question 6: What are more rules for writing plurals? Rules for changing singular medical words to plural are not always consistent. Sometimes, you will have to memorize the exceptions. One rule is that if a singular word ends in a, the plural is formed by adding an e. An example of this is the singular scapula that becomes scapulae for the plural (Davis, 2002). The scapula is better known as the shoulder blade. However, one does not always add an e to a word that ends in a to make it plural. For example, the word hematoma, (sounds like hema toe ma) means a collection of blood usually within a confined space outside of a blood vessel. The plural of hematoma is hematomas. "Singular terms ending in um are pluralized by changing the um to an a" (Davis, 2002). For instance, ovum becomes ova. An ovum is a female egg. To form the plural of singular words ending in ix or ex, change the ending to ices. For example, apex becomes apices. An apex is the highest point of something. One use in medical terminology is to refer to the very tops of the lungs (the top closest to the neck); the top of either lung is called the apex, and the top of both lungs are called apices; however, this rule does not always apply because 3
the plural of reflex is not reflices, but rather reflexes. Question 7: How can understanding certain parts of medical terms help one understand unfamiliar medical terms? Although it seems like there are infinite numbers of roots, suffixes, and prefixes, there are some that are used more frequently than others. Once you understand these frequently used medical terms, you will be able to see similarities in less frequently used terms and be able to analyze that new term. For example, the suffix -itis, which means inflammation, is a commonly used part of a medical term. The suffix -ia, which means condition of, is also commonly used. It is sort of a generic catchall ending of many medical terms. Almost all body systems/parts can have medical terms ending with -itis or -ia. You can also understand the context of a medical term if you know a similar medical term. For example, the medical term bradycardia (sounds like brad e car dee ah) means a slow heartbeat. This term consists of a prefix of brady- (meaning slow), a root of cardi (meaning heart), and a suffix of -ia. If you are now presented with the medical term tachycardia, you can expect it will have a meaning related to the frequency of the heartbeat. The prefix of this term tachy- means rapid. Consequently, this term means a rapid heartbeat. By being familiar with the root and suffix of a term similar to bradycardia, you had some idea of what kind of medical term tachycardia was. Question 8: Do the definitions of medical terms mean exactly what the roots, suffixes, and prefixes translate to? Most medical terms do not translate exactly to how the word is used by clinicians. Most translate very closely, and the user can generally infer the meaning. For example, the suffix of -osis has a rather general meaning that something is abnormal. It takes on a more specific meaning depending on the preceding root. For example, look at the word psychosis (sounds like sigh-kosis). The root psych refers to the mind. If -osis means abnormal, then psychosis means an abnormal state of mind. As you can see, that is not a very specific definition of a mental health condition. In clinical use, this term generally refers to a person who has a mental disorder in which he or she does not perceive reality clearly he or she may be having hallucinations or delusions. However, the medical term antiseptic (sounds like an tih sep tik) is more direct in its meaning. The prefix is anti-, which means in opposition to or against something. Opposition means resisting something, so it implies an action against something. Sept is the root, which means infection. The suffix is -ic, 4
which means pertaining to something. Hence, antiseptic refers to something that is resisting an infection (i.e., literally resisting an infection from occurring). Though the definition of the term antiseptic is fairly clear, the term psychosis is not quite as clear because the suffix is not quite specific. However, you will still know something about the nature of the term psychosis and realize it is referring to some abnormality of a state of mind. Question 9: What are some other terms used to describe different professional areas of study? Many medical specialties end with the suffix -logist. If you want to know the medical specialty, analyze the meaning of the root of the term. These roots refer to anatomical terms, many of which you may already be familiar. Roots refer to body parts or systems of the body. Body systems include skin, muscular, digestive, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, reproductive, skeletal, urinary, respiratory, and lymphatic. The root for the nervous system is neur, and with the combining vowel of o and the suffix of -ologist, the word neurologist refers to a physician who specializes in the study and treatment of conditions of the nervous system. The root for the endocrine system is crin. Pulmon is the root for the pulmonary system. The term for the reproductive system in women is the root gynec or gyn. This is different from an obstetrician, who is a physician specializing in care of the pregnant woman. This is a word derived from the Latin term for midwife. The root for the urinary system is ur. This is the same root applied to physicians who specialize in male reproductive disorders. Nephr or ren is the root for the kidneys. Thus, a physician who specializes in caring for people with kidney problems (which may involve dialysis) is called a nephrologist. The root for skin, also a body system, is derm or dermat. The root for the lymphatic system is lymph, but one type of physician that treats diseases of the lymphatic system is a hematologist. The root is heme, which means blood, and is also applied to the circulatory system. Some of the functions of the lymphatic system include producing cells for circulation. Another physician who specializes in cancer study and treatment is called an oncologist because the root onc means tumor or mass and is often meant to imply malignancy. An oncologist may be further referenced by the body system in which he or she is specialized. For example, there are gynecologists who are specialized further as oncologists. 5
Question 10: Do all medical terms have roots? No, not all medical terms have roots. For example, the word anemia (sounds like a nee me a) consists of a prefix an- (meaning without) and a suffix of - emia (meaning blood condition). Neoplasm (sounds like neo plazm) has a prefix and a suffix. "The prefix of neo- means new, and the suffix of -plasm means growth" (Davis, 2002). The word for before childbirth is antepartum. The ante- is the prefix, and the suffix is -partum. You will learn about a number of medical terms that are derived from Latin or Greek names for symptoms and also from where a medical term is derived, but it may not have a root or even a prefix or suffix. An example is the term convulsion, otherwise known as a seizure. The term convulsion is taken from the Latin word convulsio, which means to pull together (Dorland's Medical Dictionary, 2000). Medical terms might be named for the places where they are found (such as West Nile Virus). When you are first learning medical terms, it is useful to analyze the suffix and then the root to see if they are part of the word to help you understand the word. However, you will discover that other medical terms, including parts of the body, do not necessarily have these components. References Cohen, B. J. (2004). Medical terminology: An illustrated guide. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Davis, J. J. (2002). Essentials of medical terminology (2nd ed.). Albany, NY: Delmar. Dorland's Medical Dictionary. (2000). Retrieved from the Merck Medicus Web site: http://www.merckmedicus.com/pp/us/hcp/thcp_dorlands_content.jsp?p g=/ppdocs/us/common/dorlands/dorland/dmd-c-056.htm 6