Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego. Development and Ego Functioning Level

Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego 1 Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego Development and Ego Functioning Level Susan Wilson Master of Arts in General Psychology Marshall University Graduate College Stephen L. O Keefe, PhD Committee Advisor Copyright 2002 Keywords: Cramer, Defense Mechanism Manual, Multidimensional Aptitude Battery, Thematic Apperception Test, Washington University Sentence Completion Test

Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego 2 Abstract This study measured the relationship between ego development and ego functioning in late adolescent high school students. Gender differences in ego development and ego functioning were also measured. Forty-one high school students from two eleventh grade general history classes were involved in the study. The Washington University Sentence Completion Test was used to obtain scores of ego development. The Defense Mechanism Manual, Thematic Apperception Test and Multidimensional Aptitude Battery were used to determine ego functioning scores. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and one-sample t-tests indicate a relationship of ego development and ego functioning at specific ego levels. No significant gender differences were found in the study. Recommendations for further research are given.

Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego 3 Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego Development and Ego Functioning Level Cramer (1999) explored the relationship between the ego functions of intelligence and defense mechanisms and ego development in young adults. The specific defense mechanisms studied in Cramer s research were denial, projection, and identification. Ego development and ego functioning measures, with the exception of intelligence, were given to participants at the age of 23. The intelligence measure was obtained when participants were 18. Ego Development Level The Washington University Sentence Completion Test. The stages of ego development in Cramer s study (1999) were determined by Loevinger and Blasi s (1976) model of ego development and scores on the Washington University Sentence Completion Test (WUSCT). These stages are determined primary on the degree of impulse control of the participant. Individual stages, from least to most mature, include; impulsive, self-protective, conformist, self-aware, conscientious, individualistic, autonomous and integrated stages (Hy & Loevinger, 1996). Cramer (1999) sorted individual ego development stages into three groups. The first group includes the impulsive through self-protective stages, the second group the conformist and self-aware stages and the third group the conscientious through integrated stages. Hy and Loevinger (1996) report characteristics and a scoring of ego levels in the scoring manual for the Washington University Sentence Completion Test (WUSCT). The impulsive stage is characterized by dependence on others, dependence on physical needs and impulses, and dichotomous thinking. The self-protective stage is represented as the first stage in which rules are understood, individuals seek immediate gratification, display hostility and the blaming

Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego 4 other s for one s own mistakes. According to Cramer (1999) the use of denial is characteristic of the impulsive stage and projection is characteristic of the self-protective stage. The second group of ego levels is characterized by a decrease of dependence on defense mechanisms such as denial and projection and an increased amount of impulsive control (Cramer, 1999). Hy and Loevinger (1996) represent the conformist stage as the beginning of conformity to societal rules and acceptable societal behaviors. The self-aware stage is depicted as a continuing of the conformist stage in which thinking has progressed from following absolutist societal rules to allowing for alternative possibilities in situations. The last group of ego levels is characterized by increased control and tolerance of impulses and the least amount of dependence of defense mechanisms (Cramer, 1999). Hy and Loevinger (1996) report the conscientious stage as one in which the individual s behavior is determined by one s conscious or moral reasoning. An individual in the conscientious stage is contemplative and strives for personal accomplishment. According to Cramer (1999) the next stage, the autonomous stage, is the first stage in which conflict can be actively admitted and dealt with. The last stage, the integrated level, is the stage in which the ego is able to effectively deal with conflict without usage of defense mechanisms and is rare for adults to reach (Hy & Loevinger, 1996). The California Adult Q-set. Another measure of ego development used in Cramer s (1999) study was the California Adult Q-set (CAQ). In addition to the traditional personality assessment of a Q-sort, this 100 item Q-sort method provides a multi-level ego development score for each participant (Cramer, 1999; Westenberg and Block 1993). The developmental patterns of the California Adult Q-set are determined by prototype

Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego 5 values which reflect patterns in relation to personality attributes, as stated on CAQ cards (Westenberg and Block, 1993). Adults rate themselves into nine categories from most uncharacteristic to most characteristic (Block, 1990). Individual CAQ cards are assigned to six personality categories that correspond with stages and levels on the Washington University Sentence Completion Test (Westenberg and Block, 1993). The CAQ in its original and modified forms is a measure for adults (Westenberg and Block, 1993). The validity of the measure in a sixteen and seventeen year old population is unknown. The California Child Q-set is available but not in self-report format as the Adult Q- set. The Child Q-set is administered to an adult who has knowledge of the child s personality (Block & Block, 1980). The rating scale for children is from extremely uncharacteristic to extremely characteristic (Block & Block, 1980). The California Child Q-set does not currently have an ego development scoring system corresponding with the WUSCT. Ego Functioning Defense Mechanisms. The defense mechanisms of denial, projection, and identification were evaluated in Cramer s (1999) study using the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). Specific cards 2, 8GF, 8BM, 10, 15 and 18GF were utilized in the study. TAT cards were assessed using the Defense Mechanism Manual (Cramer, 1991). In the Defense Mechanism Manual, defenses are determined in TAT cards by a system of scoring categories and specific scoring criterion for each defense mechanism. Intelligence. Intelligence in Cramer s (1999) study was determined by full scale IQ scores on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) when the participants in the study were 18 years of age.

Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego 6 Relationship of Ego Developmental Level and Ego Functioning Intelligence and ego development were related in a linear fashion in Cramer s (1999) study. WAIS-R IQ scores were negatively correlated with impulsive and self-protective levels, and positively correlated with conscientious, individualistic and autonomous levels. The relationship between defense mechanisms and ego development was related in a curvilinear fashion (Cramer, 1999). Denial was positively correlated with the lower ego levels, impulsive and self-protective, and negatively correlated with the higher ego levels of conformist and self-awareness. Projection was also negatively correlated with conformist and selfawareness levels. The use of identification was not significant. Pre-conformist stages of ego development, as determined by Loevinger s SCT, correlate with lower IQ scores, denial, and projection (Cramer, 1999). At the conformist stage, the intelligence score has no correlation, and denial and projection are negatively correlated. At ego levels higher than the conformist stage, two patterns emerge. The first pattern is a high IQ score and low score in denial. The second pattern consists of a low score on an intelligence measure and a high score in denial. Projection is correlated with higher ego levels, when associated with lower IQ (Cramer, 1999). When scores on the intelligence measure are high, both low and high use of projection is associated with lower ego levels, whereas moderate use of projection is associated with higher ego levels (Cramer, 1999, p.755). Gender The effect of the participant s gender, although not specifically studied, was calculated in Cramer s (1999) study. No significant effect of gender and defense mechanism usage or gender

Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego 7 and intelligence were found, although significant effects of gender and ego development level were seen. Gender and Ego Development Level. Females, in general, scored into higher ego stages on the Washington University Sentence Completion Test (WUSCT) than males (Cramer, 1999). On average, females on the WUSCT had higher scores on the post-conformist stages than males and had fewer scores that qualified for lower level ego stages. A repeated measures MANOVA of gender and prototype ego level was significant and the interaction between gender and overall ego level was significant. Gender, Ego Development Level and Age. Adolescents have gender differences in personality factors (Campbell, 1992). In a study of 12 year old Hawaiian adolescents Campbell found females scored higher than males on Cattell s personality factors of social activity versus shyness and dependence versus independence. Males scored higher than females in super ego and masculinity versus femininity. Scores from a meta-analysis of ego development level measurers report gender and age differences in ego level (Cohn, 1991). Cohn reports significant gender differences in ego level when participants are grouped by grade level in students aged high school and younger. Gender differences in college students were not as significant as those differences in participants grouped by grades 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12. Females scored higher in ego level than males (Cohn, 1991). Ego level, as measured by the Washington University Sentence Completion Test (WUSCT) score, was higher on average for non-college aged females than non-college aged males. The mean ego level for females was higher than 73% of males. Junior and high school aged females on the WUSCT scored

Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego 8 significantly higher than males in the same age group. Gender differences of ego level in eleventh grade participants in the meta-analysis ranged from significance of p<0.0015 and p<0.133. The effect of gender appears to lessen with age as no significant gender difference of ego level was seen in college aged participants. Gender, Ego Functioning and Age. Cramer (1979) reports differences in defense mechanisms by both age in high school students and by gender. As measured by the Defense Mechanism Inventory (DMI) the study of ninth through twelfth graders in a public school system found that males in the study utilized defenses such as turning against the object (TAO) and projection (PRO) significantly more than females. High school aged females utilized turning against the self (TAS) and principalization (PRO) significantly more than males. Cramer (1987) studied gender and age in relation to the defense mechanisms of denial, projection and identification. In this study, the defense mechanism of denial was considered the most immature, projection was more mature than denial and identification was considered the most mature defense mechanism. Four age groups were researched in this study: the primary group (mean age 5 years, 8 mos), intermediate group (mean age 9 years, 10 mos), early adolescent group (14 years, 6 mos) and late adolescent group (mean age 16 years, 0 mos). Defense mechanisms usage was determined by responses of TAT cards scored by Cramer s Defense Mechanism Manual. Denial, projection and identification were significantly utilized by specific age groups (Cramer, 1987). Denial was used largely by the primary group, projection by intermediate and early adolescent groups and identification by intermediate, early and late adolescent groups. The only significant gender difference by age was seen in late adolescent group females who utilized

Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego 9 identification more than projection. No significant difference of identification versus projection was found in males of the same age group. Supporting the theory of gender and age difference of defense mechanisms, adolescent females used identification more than males in a study by Cramer (1991). Cramer (1979) studied gender related defense mechanism use by age groups of ninth and tenth grades (mean age 14.4 years of girls and 14.0 years of boys) versus eleventh and twelfth grades (mean age 16.2 years for both genders). When grouped by age, significant differences in usage of defense mechanisms were seen in females. Younger adolescent females utilized principalization (PRO) as the primary defense while older adolescent females utilized both PRO and turning against the self (TAS). No significant difference was found in males for defense mechanisms used by age. Consistent with other studies, males in the Cramer (1987) study utilized the external defense of projection more than females, and females utilized the internal defense of denial more than males. According to Levit (1991) adolescent males use more external defenses such as projection, displacement, and acting out. Adolescent females have greater use of internalizing defenses such as intellectualizing, turning against the self, and reaction formation. This study is a revalidation of a portion of a longitudinal study by Cramer (1999) that explored the relationship between ego functions of intelligence and defense mechanisms and ego development in young adults. Based on Cramer s research, this study predicts a strong positive relationship between ego development and ego functioning in a late adolescent population. In addition, this study predicts gender differences in ego development and ego functioning in a late adolescent population.

Method Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego 10 Participants Participants in this study were eleventh grade students in two general history classes in a public high school. Students in each class were offered fifty extra credit grade points for participation in the study. Nineteen students in the first class and twenty-two students in the second class participated for a total forty-one participants. Overall, fifteen females and twentysix males were included. The ages of the students were 16 (70.7%) and 17 (29.3%) years. The breakdown of ages of male participants was: sixteen were 16 years and 10 were seventeen years. For female participants, thirteen were 16 years and two were 17 years of age. Materials As this study was a revalidation of Cramer s (1999) study of ego development level and ego functioning in a late adolescent population, many of the materials selected for this study are chosen from Cramer s study. The Washington University Sentence Completion Test, the Thematic Apperception Test, and the Defense Mechanism Manual are selected based on usage in Cramer s 1999 study. Ego development level was measured by the Washington University Sentence Completion Test and the WUSCT ego development scoring manual. Ego functioning was measured by defense mechanism usage in the Thematic Apperception Test and Defense Mechanism Manual, and intelligence by the Multidimensional Aptitude Battery. Each measure was delivered by group administration to the participants. Washington University Sentence Completion Test. The Washington University Sentence Completion Test (WUSCT) (Loevinger & Wessler 1970; Loevinger & Blasi 1976) is a measure

Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego 11 of ego level with separate forms for women, men, girls and boys. Form 81 of the WUSCT is the adult form for women and men that was utilized in Cramer s (1999) study and was selected for this study. The adult form of the WUSCT was selected for this population of 16-17 year olds as Form 81 was originally validated on participants 16 years and older (Westenberg, Blasi & Cohn, 1998). Cramer (1999) reports inter-rater reliability of the Washington University Sentence Completion Test for overall ego development level between 67% and 89%. Inter-rater reliability of ego development stage level was reported as 91% to 98% (Cramer, 1999). In this study, inter-rater alpha reliability analysis of the total ego development score on the Washington University Sentence Completion Test was an alpha of 0.8854. Concurrent validation of the WUSCT with Kohlberg s Moral Judgment Instrument was measured at 0.80 between the whole range of the two tests (Loevinger, 1998). Validation correlations of the Washington University Sentence Completion Test have been found to vary with age. A concurrent validation of the WUSCT and the Moral Judgment Instrument when separated by age was found to be 0.60 (Loevinger, 1998). Thematic Apperception Test. The Thematic Apperception Test (Murray, 1943) cards 2, 8GF, 8BM, 10, 15 and 18GF were given to all participants in Cramer s (1999) study and are utilized this study. The TAT has been used in adolescent populations to measure defense mechanism usage of participants. For this study the Thematic Apperception Test was modified due to time constraints and group administration in this study. Each participant was given a packet six pieces of paper, one sheet of paper for each TAT card. Participants were then given five minutes to write their

Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego 12 response to each card. The Thematic Apperception Test cards were presented in group administration format on an overhead projector. Due to the variation of scoring manual interpretation criterion, reliability and validity of the Thematic Apperception Test varies with the scoring method implemented. Cramer s (1991) Defense Mechanism Manual was utilized in Cramer s (1999) study and in this study to determine usage of denial, projection and identification defense mechanisms. The reliability of the Thematic Apperception Test as measured by the Defense Mechanism Manual of the defense mechanisms are as follows: inter-rater reliability coefficient of denial (mean 0.87), projection (mean 0.81) and identification (mean 0.64) (Cramer, 1991). Intra-rater reliability of the Thematic Apperception Test measured by the Defense Mechanism Manual in this study indicates denial, projection, and identification are being measured independently. An alpha reliability analysis of total denial, projection and identification scores was alpha =0.0090. The criterion validity of the Thematic Apperception Test as measured by the Defense Mechanism Manual as rated by independent psychologists are as follows: 76-77% agreement of criterion representing denial, 82-87% agreement of projection items, and 78-89% agreement of identification items (Cramer, 1991). Multidimensional Aptitude Battery. The Multidimensional Aptitude Battery was developed by Jackson (1984) to be a applicable group administration alternative to the WAIS-R for participants aged 16 and above (Carless, 2000). This measure consists of ten subscales of five each of verbal and performance, verbal, performance and full scale intelligence scores. Responses are in a multiple choice format and each subscale takes up to seven minutes to

Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego 13 administer. The full scale test has a ninety minute administration time. This instrument is selected due to its high validity with the WAIS-R and the group administration format. Validity of the Multidimensional Aptitude Battery when compared to the WAIS-R are as follows; verbal scale (0.94), performance scale (0.79) and full scale IQ (0.91) (Carless, 2000). Validity of the MAB is 0.85 when compared to the Stanford-Binet test. The reliability of verbal, performance, and full scale IQ scores range from 0.94 to 0.98 (Carless, 2000). Due to time constraints of testing in a school setting, the short form version of the Multidimensional Aptitude Battery was chosen for this study. The short form version by Hill and Jackson (1984) consists of the comprehension, similarities, digit symbol and spatial subscales. The short form test was derived from a multivariate regression of combinations of subscales from samples of the long form Multidimensional Aptitude Battery adolescent population (Hill & Jackson, 1984). The variances reported on each of the subscale samples (less than 0.001) indicate accuracy of the short form in predicting full scale IQ (Hill & Jackson, 1984). Inter-rater reliability of the Multidimensional Aptitude Battery short form subtests in this study were alpha levels between 0.9836 and 1.000. The inter-rater reliability of the verbal IQ was alpha=0.9929. The performance IQ inter-rater reliability was alpha=0.9432. Full scale IQ inter-rater reliability was an alpha of 0.9935. Results Relationship Between Ego Development and Ego Functioning Similar to analysis in Cramer s (1999) study, the data in this study were analyzed by a MANOVA (SPSS V 11.5) analysis with the independent measure of gender and covariate of full

Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego 14 scale IQ. The dependent measures were the ego development score of the Washington University Sentence Completion Test and the defense mechanisms of denial, projection, and identification derived from scores on the Thematic Apperception Test and Cramer s (1991) Defense Mechanism Manual. The Type I error of all tests was set at 0.05. The multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) of gender, full scale IQ, ego development and ego functioning shows no significant multivariate relationship between the dependent measures. The independent covariate full scale IQ had non-significant effects in the MANOVA with the dependent factors ego level, denial, projection and identification. The difference of numbers of males (n=26) and females (n=15) in this study was not significant on the MANOVA as both the Box test of equality of covariance matrices and Levene s test of equality of error variances were not significant. Scores on the Thematic Apperception Test and Cramer s (1991) Defense Mechanism Manual were not significantly correlated to gender, intelligence measures or ego development level at the self-protective or conformist stages. At the self-aware stage of ego development, scores of TAT projection were significantly positively correlated to performance and full scale IQ s. Performance IQ was correlated at 0.651 (p<0.041) and full scale IQ correlated at 0.664 (p<0.036). Scores of identification were correlated to projection scores at the self-aware ego level (r=0.685; p<0.029). The range of ego development scores for the group was between three and five, at the self-protective and self-aware ego levels. The group mean ego development scores are significantly lower than expected means for the 16-17 year old age group. A one-sample t-test comparing the group mean to the conformist ego level is significant at p<0.032. A one-sample t-

Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego 15 test comparing the group mean to the self-aware ego level is significant at p<0.000. Children usually reach conformist ego level as they transition through middle school before reaching high school (Hy & Loevinger,1996). Self-aware ego level is a version of the conformist level and is obtained when an individual allows the self to make provisions to the conformist rules (Hy & Loevinger,1996). Full scale and verbal scores, although not scores of performance IQ, were significantly correlated with ego level in this study. Verbal IQ and ego level obtained a Pearson correlation of 0.391 (p<0.011). Full scale IQ scores and ego level were correlated at 0.334 (p<0.033). Performance IQ was not correlated with ego level. The group mean for verbal, performance and full scale IQ scores were significantly higher than the theoretical average of a 100 IQ. The group mean for verbal IQ was 108.20 (SD=11.98), significant at p<0.000. The group performance IQ mean was 109.98 (SD=19.77), significant at p<0.002. The full scale IQ group mean was 109.83 (SD=14.82), significant at p<0.000. Gender Differences in Ego Development and Ego Functioning The multivariate analysis of variance shows there were no significant gender effects on ego development or ego functioning of defense mechanisms of denial, projection or identification in this study The mean Thematic Apperception Test ego functioning scores grouped by gender were as follows: Total Denial Total Projection Total Identification Male 8.617 6.496 3.780 Female 8.197 6.740 4.516

Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego 16 There were no significant gender differences in Thematic Apperception Test and Cramer s (1991) Defense Mechanism Manual derived scores. The mean Washington University Sentence Completion Test (WUSCT) ego level score for females was 3.903. The mean ego level score for males was 3.595. Mean verbal, performance and full scale intelligence scores on the Multidimensional Aptitude Battery grouped by gender were as follows: Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full Scale IQ male 106.27 (SD=16.02) 106.00 (SD=21.26) 105.58 (SD=13.08) female 116.00 (SD=10.22) 116.87 (SD=15.13) 112.73 (SD=8.38) Males scored no differently than females on verbal, performance and full scale IQ on the Multidimensional Aptitude Battery. Males had a larger range of scores on verbal, performance, and full scale scores than females. However, a Chi-Square test of verbal, performance and full scale scores did not reveal significant differences for verbal, performance or full scale IQ s. Discussion Relationship Between Ego Development and Ego Functioning Cramer s (1999) study hypothesized a curvilinear relationship between ego development and ego functioning. This curvilinear relationship could only occur if all ego levels are present in the analysis. In Cramer s study, ego levels were grouped so as to obtain a full range of ego levels. The number of females and males at each group of ego levels is as follows: Impulsive/Self-Protective: 0,7; Conformist:2,6; Self-Aware: 17, 16; Conscientious: 21, 11; Individualistic/Autonomous: 6,3" (Cramer, 1999, p.744). Cramer reports a full range of ego

Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego 17 levels is imperative as a restricted range limits the significance of the research. The range of ego development levels in this study includes self-protective, conformist, and self-aware ego levels. There was not a full range of ego level scores so as to explore the curvilinear relationship between ego development and ego functioning. In addition this limited range of ego development levels may limit the significance of the results. This range of ego development scores in a late adolescent population is important as the mean of the group is significantly below both the conformist and self-aware ego levels. According to Hy and Loevinger (1996) adolescents in this age group at the selfprotective ego level may be antisocial, defiant, or take advantage of others. In order to be successful in society, individuals at this stage of ego development must have resources other than their personality. Resources may include significant group verbal, performance and full scale high average intelligence as seen in the population in this study. The high average full scale IQ may facilitate a self-protective adolescent s functioning in society. Peer pressure and/or normal development provides transition from the self-protective to conformist ego development levels (Hy & Loevinger 1996). At the conformist level, gender and societal norms are enforced as a child identifies with the group. The transition to this ego level normally occurs in late elementary to middle school. The self-aware stage develops from the conformist stage as a sense of self becomes differentiated from the group norm (Hy & Loevinger 1996). The self at the self-aware stage allows for exceptions to group rules and interpersonal feelings. The self-aware stage is ageappropriate for an adolescent population. Only ten participants of forty-one achieved this ego development level.

Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego 18 Cramer (1999) also hypothesized ego development occurred by the development of defense mechanisms. In the impulsive stage of ego development, denial is characteristic. Projection is characteristic of the self-protective ego development level. Cramer reports the conformist stage to require heavy use of defense mechanisms to remain in that stage of ego development. The self-aware stage of development is characterized by a lower need of defense mechanism usage as the individual moves into the conscientious stage. Cramer states denial develops in early childhood, projection in elementary school years and identification in late adolescence. Denial was used most often by participants in this study. Projection was used second often, followed by identification. This pattern of defense mechanism usage follows Cramer s (1999) model as participants in this study are in the self-protective to self-aware range of ego development. As the mean of the population is significantly below the conformist ego level, extensive use of projection and lower defense mechanisms would be expected in this population. Cramer (1999) predicted that intelligence influenced ego development and ego functioning separately. Intelligence was hypothesized to have a linear relationship with ego development. Cramer found that intelligence was related to ego development below the conformist ego level and was not related to conformist level or above of ego development. Cramer (1999) measured ego functioning as the defense mechanisms of denial, projection and identification. In Cramer s study, denial was associated with high ego development and low intelligence. Projection had an U-shaped relationship with intelligence (Cramer, 1999, p.752). Identification was not associated with intelligence. In this study, ego functioning correlated with the intelligence at the self-aware stage of

Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego 19 ego development. Defense mechanisms were not significantly correlated with the self-aware stage of ego development. However, intelligent measures correlated at that ego level. Projection correlated with full scale and performance IQ measures at the self-aware level. In addition, identification and projection correlated at the self-aware ego level. Self-protective and conformist levels of ego development did not correlate with ego functioning. Participants in this study had a high average mean of full scale, verbal and performance IQ scores. These high average intelligence measures were not associated with high ego development levels as suggested by Cramer s (1999) research. In Cramer s study, WAIS-R IQ scores were negatively correlated with impulsive and self-protective levels, and positively correlated with conscientious, individualistic and autonomous levels. Full scale and verbal IQ scores in this study were positively correlated with ego development level. Performance IQ was not correlated with ego level. The restricted range of ego development level of the participants from self-protective to self-aware may limit the effect of intelligence in this study. Gender Effects Gender in Cramer s (1999) study revealed non-significant effects in intelligence and ego functioning. However, significant effects were seen in ego development. Females in that study had significantly higher ego level scores and subsequently were rated at higher ego development levels. Gender effects have been found in additional research at the late adolescent level (Campbell, 1992; Cohn, 1991;Cramer, 1979, 1987, 1991, 1999; Levit, 1991). In this study, no gender effects were found. Males and females did not significantly differ in ego development, ego functioning or intelligence measures. Males and females each utilized

Gender Differences in Adolescent Ego 20 the ego functioning of denial most often, projection second and identification last. Males and females in this study did not significantly differ in their low ego development levels from selfprotective to self-aware. Recommendations A broader range of ego development levels has been suggested by Cramer (1999) to produce more significant results when studying the relationship of ego development and ego functioning and gender effects. Results in this study support that hypothesis. As ego development level is related in Cramer s study to intelligence and defense functioning; to include individuals with a larger range of ego development also includes individuals with a larger range of intelligence levels and defense mechanisms usage. Conclusion As with Cramer s (1999) study, the range of ego development levels influenced the significance of the results. In contrast with Cramer, no gender effects on ego development, ego functioning, and/or intelligence measures were seen as males and females equally scored low on ego development levels and defense mechanism usage. The group mean of high average intelligence did not have an effect on ego development level possibly due to the limited range of ego levels. Denial was most often utilized by participants, followed by projection, and identification. A result by Cramer replicated by this study is ego development by the development of defense mechanisms. Denial and projection defense mechanism usage were associated with lower ego development levels in this study. Further research may determine a method of decreasing the influence of a limited range of ego development levels.

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