Personlity nd Individul Differences 45 (2008) 738 743 Contents lists ville t ScienceDirect Personlity nd Individul Differences journl homepge: www.elsevier.com/locte/pid The stility nd chnge of trit emotionl intelligence, conflict communiction ptterns, nd reltionship : A one-yer longitudinl study Lynne Smith, Joseph Cirrochi, Ptrick C.L. Heven * Deprtment of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Northfields Avenue, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Austrli rticle info strct Article history: Received 29 My 2008 Received in revised form 22 July 2008 Accepted 28 July 2008 Aville online 11 Septemer 2008 Keywords: Emotionl intelligence Reltionship Trit EI Communiction ptterns Longitudinl We exmined the stility nd chnge of trit emotionl intelligence (EI), conflict communiction ptterns nd reltionship in cohiting heterosexul couples over 12-month period. Prticipnts were 45 couples (n = 90) who completed the TEIQue Short Form (Petrides & Furnhm, 2006), the Communiction Ptterns Questionnire (Christensen & Sullwy, 1984), nd the Perceived Reltionship Qulity Components (PRQC) Inventory (Fletcher, Simpson, & Thoms, 2000). We exmined oth ctor nd prtner effects. We found tht, for individuls, the effect of self-rted EI on their own ws stle over the 12-month period nd ws not relted to chnges in over time. We lso found tht women s reports of voidnce nd withholding predicted declines in oth men s nd women s over time. We discuss the potentil importnce of EI nd communiction ptterns in promoting reltionship. Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction How stle re long-term cohiting reltionships? Wht fctors influence chnges in couples over time? In recent cross-sectionl study, we found tht trit emotionl intelligence (EI) nd conflict communiction ptterns predicted the reltionship of cohiting couples (Smith, Heven, & Cirrochi, 2008). The im of this study ws to extend tht reserch y exmining whether nd to wht degree EI nd communiction ptterns were ssocited with chnges in reltionship over 12-month period. 1.1. Emotionl intelligence EI (or trit emotionl self-efficcy) is personlity trit tht entils self-perceived emotion-relted ilities nd dispositions tht re typiclly mesured vi self-report instruments (Petrides & Furnhm, 2001). The construct hs een rgued to cpture individul differences in ffective self-evlutions nd is sid to integrte the emotion-relted fcets of the Gint Three nd Big Five personlity txonomies (Petrides & Furnhm, 2001). The construct vlidity of EI hs een supported through progrm of reserch tht hs systemticlly demonstrted its discriminnt, criterion nd incrementl vlidity (e.g. see Kluemper, 2008; Petrides, Pérez-González, & Furnhm, 2007). * Corresponding uthor. Tel.: +61 2 42214070. E-mil ddress: pheven@uow.edu.u (P.C.L. Heven). To dte, however, few studies hve exmined the longitudinl effects of EI. Given tht EI is conceptulised s personlity trit, it is ssumed to e reltively stle over time like other personlity trits (Petrides, Furnhm, & Mvroveli, 2007). Personlity trits hve een shown to hve high levels of stility cross time (Roerts & DelVecchio, 2000). In looking t this type of stility, n individul s reltive position in the smple is retined over time, nd the stility is generlly mesured y correltion (Cspi & Roerts, 2001). 1.2. Emotionl intelligence nd reltionship While EI would seem to hve ovious conceptul relevnce to couples, few studies hve exmined the connections etween EI nd reltionship. EI hs correlted with reltionship in cohiting couples (Smith et l., 2008), ut the longitudinl connections etween EI nd reltionship re unknown. Reserch in EI-relted personlity domins, however, my indicte possile reltionships. For instnce, when looking t the effects of personlity on chnges in reltionship, neuroticism (or trit nxiety) hs received the most ttention (Krney & Brdury, 1995). Longitudinl studies hve found tht while neuroticism predicted initil levels of dis in newlyweds, it ws not ssocited with chnges in (Cughlin, Huston, & Houts, 2000; Krney & Brdury, 1997). Thus, it hs een rgued tht personlity cretes the stle intrpersonl context of mrrige nd tht its effect is constnt over time (Krney & Brdury, 1995). One im of the present study is to exmine whether EI hs constnt nd eneficil effect on reltionship 0191-8869/$ - see front mtter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.pid.2008.07.023
L. Smith et l. / Personlity nd Individul Differences 45 (2008) 738 743 739 over time, or whether it predicts chnges in reltionship. 1.3. Communiction nd When it comes to longitudinl studies of romntic reltionships, couples prolem-solving ehviours hve often een of interest (Krney & Brdury, 1995). There is cler cross-sectionl evidence tht constructive communiction ptterns re ssocited with, while more dysfunctionl ptterns, such s the demndwithdrw pttern nd mutul voidnce nd withholding, re ssocited with reltionship dis (Noller & White, 1990). The longitudinl connections etween communiction nd hve lso een exmined. For instnce, constructive communiction hs predicted improvements in (Gill, Christensen, & Finchm, 1999), wheres pttern of voidnce hs predicted declines in (Gottmn & Krokoff, 1989), nd the demndwithdrw pttern of communiction hs predicted declines in nd divorce (Gottmn & Levenson, 2000). 1.4. Emotionl intelligence, communiction ptterns nd In theorizing out mritl development, Krney nd Brdury (1995) hve rgued tht personlity forms prt of the intrpersonl environment of mritl reltionships. The effect of this environment on mritl stility nd is theorised to e relized erly in the mrrige nd therefter is constnt over time. Interpersonl processes such s communiction, however, develop with the mrrige nd tend to e relted to chnges in. Krney nd Brdury (1997) tested their theory y exmining the ssocitions etween neuroticism, mritl interction nd in newlyweds over four-yers. They found tht while neuroticism predicted t ech of the eight time wves, it did not predict chnges in. However, couples mritl interction predicted chnges in over the four-yer period. They concluded tht neuroticism is more strongly ssocited with spouses initil levels of, wheres mritl interction is more strongly ssocited with chnges in over time. 1.5. Aims nd rtionle The im of this study ws to exmine the longitudinl influences of EI, conflict communiction ptterns nd reltionship in cohiting couples over 12-month period. To dte, no study hs exmined these reltionships longitudinlly. First, following from Krney nd Brdury s (1997) study on neuroticism nd it is hypothesised tht the effect of self-reported EI on will e stle nd tht self-reported EI will not e ssocited with chnges in over time (H1). Second, following from Krney nd Brdury (1997) nd the literture on communiction ptterns, it is nticipted tht reports of the Time 1 communiction ptterns will predict Time 2. Specificlly, it is expected tht Time 1 constructive communiction will predict increses in Time 2 (H2) (Gill et l., 1999), while Time 1 reports of demnding nd withdrwing (Gottmn & Levenson, 2000) (H3) or voidnce nd withholding (Gottmn & Krokoff, 1989) (H4) will predict decreses in Time 2. 1.6. Pln of nlysis A numer of different sttisticl nlyses will e conducted in order to test the hypotheses. We will egin with correltionl nlyses y sex, followed y structurl eqution modelling (SEM). One dvntge of SEM is tht it llows oth individuls dt to e nlysed together so s to scertin oth ctor nd prtner effects. Actor effects mesure the effects of n individul s predictor vrile on their own outcome vrile (e.g. the effects of men s Time 1 selfrted EI on men s Time 2 ) nd prtner effects mesure the effect of the individul s predictor vrile on their prtner s outcome vrile (e.g. the effects of women s Time 1 self-rted EI on men s Time 2 ). The other dvntge of SEM is tht it controls for dydic dependence or correltion (e.g. men s nd women s scores re likely to e correlted) nd utocorreltion (the correltion etween mesurements of vrile t two points in time), which, if not controlled, cn is tests of significnce nd degrees of freedom (Kenny, Kshy, & Cook, 2006). To test Hypothesis 1, tht the effect of self-reported EI on will e constnt, first, correltions for ech sex etween Time 1 self-reported EI nd Time 2 will e derived, followed y correltions etween Time 2 self-reported EI (controlling for Time 1 ) nd Time 2. If the correltions re significnt, SEM will e used to test whether the effect of selfrted EI on, on verge, is stle cross time. In order to test Hypotheses 2 4 regrding the conflict communiction ptterns s predictors of chnges in, first, for ech sex, Time 1 reports of the communiction ptterns will e correlted with Time 2 (controlling for Time 1 ). If these correltions re significnt, the communiction ptterns will then e tested with SEM to determine whether, on verge, people with low EI or who report more dysfunctionl communiction ptterns show greter decreses in reltionship compred to those with high EI or more functionl communiction ptterns, nd the sme seline levels of. 2. Method 2.1. Prticipnts nd procedure Using convenience smpling, 82 heterosexul cohiting couples were recruited. Prticipnts resided in the Sydney-Wollongong region of New South Wles, nd were predominntly middle clss. Women prticipnts rnged in ge from 20 to 79 yers (M = 47, SD = 17), nd men rnged in ge from 22 to 80 yers (M = 49, SD = 17). Of the totl, 67 couples (82%) were mrried nd 15 (18%) were not. Three couples (4%) hd een together for less thn 1 yer, 8 couples (10%) hd een together for etween 1 nd 3 yers, 8 (10%) hd een together for etween 3 nd 5 yers, 15 couples (18%) hd een together for etween 6 nd 10 yers, nd 48 couples (58%) hd een together for more thn 10 yers. Of ll the prticipnts, 28 (34%) hd high school eduction or less, 20 (24%) hd technicl college eduction, while 34 (42%) hd university eduction. With respect to income, 28 couples (34%) hd comined fmily income of more thn A$100,000 per nnum. In reltion to the originl smple of 82 couples, 37 couples (45%) did not prticipte t Time 2. Thus, 90 prticipnts or 45 couples completed the full longitudinl study. Of the 37 couples who did not prticipte in the second study, three couples were unle to e contcted, two couples declined to prticipte, while nonprticiption y the remining couples ws unexplined. Couples were contcted y mil nd were provided with test ooklet tht contined two questionnires, two consent forms, nd two envelopes in which to return the questionnires nd consent forms seprtely. Couples were instructed not to discuss the questionnire with their prtner until the questionnire session ws concluded. 2.2. Mesures Trit Emotionl Intelligence Questionnire Short Form (TEIQue- SF): The TEIQue-SF (Petrides & Furnhm, 2006) is 30-item self-re-
740 L. Smith et l. / Personlity nd Individul Differences 45 (2008) 738 743 port scle tht yields glol mesure of EI, nd is sed on the TEIQue long form (Petrides & Furnhm, 2003). The TEIQue-SF hs een shown to hve dequte reliility nd vlidity (Petrides & Furnhm, 2006). Prticipnts re sked to rte their degree of greement with ech item on seven-point Likert-type scle with responses rnging from completely disgree (1) to completely gree (7). Cronch s lph coefficient in this study ws.91. Communiction Ptterns Questionnire (CPQ): The CPQ (Christensen & Sullwy, 1984) is 35-item self-report instrument designed to ssess the extent to which couples employ vrious types of interction strtegies when deling with reltionship prolem. Ech prtner indictes wht typiclly occurs in their reltionship on nine-point Likert scle rnging from very unlike us (1) to very like us (9). In this study four suscles were used: () the constructive communiction suscle, () the femle demnd nd mle withdrw suscle, (c) the mle demnd nd femle withdrw suscle, nd (d) the mutul voidnce nd withholding suscle. The constructive communiction suscle hs six items nd the Cronch s lph coefficient in this study ws.85. The femle demnd nd mn withdrw suscle contins three items s does the mn demnd nd femle withdrw suscle. The lph coefficients were.85 (womn demnd nd mn withdrw) nd.81 (mn demnd nd womn withdrw). The mutul voidnce nd withholding suscle contins three items nd the Cronch s lph ws.74. Perceived Reltionship Qulity Components (PRQC) Inventory: The PRQC (Fletcher et l., 2000) is designed to mesure individuls evlutions of their reltionship, commitment, intimcy, trust, pssion, nd love. We used the suscle (three items) ecuse it mesures s pure vrile nd does not conflte it with other ehviours which my inflte the results (smple item: How stisfied re you with your reltionship? ). Ech prtner evlutes their reltionship on sevenpoint Likert scle rnging from not t ll (1) to extremely (7). Cronch s lph ws.88. 3. Results Given tht 37 couples (45%) from the initil smple did not prticipte t Time 2, the mens for oth smples were nlysed to estlish if there were differences in t Time 1 etween those who prticipted t Time 2 nd those who did not. An independent smples t-test indicted there ws no difference (t(79) = 1.12, p >.05) etween the Time 1 men scores for men who did not prticipte t Time 2 (M = 19.17, SD = 2.82, n = 36) versus those who did (M = 18.40, SD = 3.24, n = 45). Similrly, there ws no significnt difference for women (t(68.49) = 1.94, p >.05) in the men scores t Time 1 for the women who did not prticipte t Time 2 (M = 19.35, SD = 1.93, n = 37) versus those who did (M = 18.11, SD = 3.73, n = 45). 3.1. Men differences Tle 1 presents the men scores nd differences for men s nd women s vriles t Times 1 nd 2. Pired smples t-tests indicted significnt differences on oth men s nd women s voidnce nd withholding, oth indicting reports of more voidnce nd withholding t Time 2. These results suggest tht, excepting the voidnce nd withholding pttern of communiction, the vriles were stle t the group level. Pired smples t-tests lso indicted significnt difference etween men s nd women s reports of voidnce nd withholding t Time 1 (t(43) = 2.19, p <.05), with women reporting more voidnce nd withholding thn men. This suggests difference in reporting, rther thn ehviour, s oth individuls reported on the couples ptterns. Tle 1 Differences etween Times 1 nd 2 scores for men nd women on EI, perceptions of the communiction ptterns, nd reltionship Scles Time 1 Time 2 df t p However, there were no other sex differences on ny of the vriles t Times 1 or 2. 3.2. Stility correltions M SD M SD Self-reported EI Mles 153.77 19.88 154.16 20.05 43 21.83 Femles 151.27 21.86 151.98 20.66 44.32.75 Constructive communiction Mle reports 50.86 6.99 49.88 8.02 41.92.36 Femle reports 50.74 9.27 50.19 7.98 42.47.64 Mn demnd/womn withdrw Mle reports 10.09 5.15 9.81 4.97 42.42.68 Femles reports 9.91 5.95 10.24 5.50 44.40.69 Womn demnd/mn withdrw Mle reports 11.91 5.65 11.00 5.75 42 1.25.22 Femle reports 12.89 6.50 11.60 6.25 44 1.86.07 Avoidnce nd withholding Mle reports 5.26 2.82 9.23 3.98 41 6.43.00 Femle reports 6.89 4.39 9.75 5.54 43 3.60.00 Stisfction Mle reports 18.40 3.24 18.89 2.57 44 1.32.19 Femle reports 18.05 3.75 18.09 3.44 43.09.93 We next explored the stility of the vriles cross Times 1 nd 2. Exmintion of ll zero-order nd prtil correltions (sttisticlly controlling for length of cohittion nd for ge) etween Times 1 nd 2 scores for men nd women on EI, communiction ptterns, nd were sttisticlly significnt (rnging from r =.46 to r =.82) t p <.01, except mle reports of voidnce nd withholding which were significnt (r =.34) t p <.05. This suggests tht the vriles were reltively stle cross the 12-months. Furthermore, controlling for length of cohittion nd ge did not result in pprecile chnges to the correltions. 3.3. Correltions t ech time wve nd cross the two wves Tle 2 presents the correltions etween men s nd women s self-reported EI, communiction ptterns nd reltionship t Times 1 nd 2 (see the first four columns). There were moderte correltions t Times 1 nd 2, for oth men nd women, with few cross-correltions etween the sexes. In reltion to Hypothesis 1, there ws cross-sectionl support for the prediction tht the effect of self-rted EI on would e stle t Time 1 nd Time 2. Notly, men s self-rted EI ws correlted with concurrent t Times 1 nd 2, nd women s self-rted EI ws correlted with t Time 2, ut not t Time 1 lthough it pproched significnce (r =.27, n = 45, p =.07). The longitudinl test of the stle effect of self-rted EI is presented in the next section. Tle 2 lso presents the correltions for men nd women etween Time 1 self-reported EI, the communiction ptterns nd Time 2, controlling for Time 1 (see the lst two columns). When it cme to ssessing chnges over time, the only significnt correltions were etween women s Time 1 reports of voidnce nd withholding communiction nd oth men s nd women s Time 2. 3.4. Assessing the stle effect of self-rted EI on Given tht self-rted EI ws ssocited with crosssectionlly t oth times, we needed to test if the influence of
L. Smith et l. / Personlity nd Individul Differences 45 (2008) 738 743 741 Tle 2 Correltions for men s nd women s self-reported EI, communiction ptterns nd, t Time 1, t Time 2, nd (controlling for Time 1 ) etween Time 1 nd Time 2 Scles Time 1 vriles nd Time 1 Time 2 vriles nd Time 2 Time 1 vriles nd Time 2 Mles Femles Mles Femles Mles Femles Self-rted EI Mle reports.40 **.12.36 *.18.09.06 Femle reports.19.27.33 *.48 **.21.07 Perceptions of constructive communiction Mle reports.49 **.20.56 **.24.19.08 Femle reports.28.43 **.53 **.31 *.22.24 Perceptions of mn demnd/womn withdrw Mle reports.12.14.34 *.17.11.13 Femle reports.20.21.38 *.23.20.03 Perceptions of womn demnd/mn withdrw Mle reports.23.25.45 **.28.05.13 Femle reports.22.20.29.32 *.18.22 Perceptions of voidnce nd withholding Mle reports.51 **.24.38 *.08.15.02 Femle reports.30 *.30 *.32 *.28.31 *.43 ** n = 40. * p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01. self-rted EI ws stle cross the 12-month period. We rn series of nlyses using SEM to test whether the effect of self-rted EI on, on verge, ws stle cross time. When testing the model, certin pths were ssumed to e the sme or equl. In order to test this ssumption, v 2 ws used to mesure goodness of fit. When v 2 is non-significnt, the result indictes tht the ssumption of equlity does not reduce the fit of the model. It must e noted, tht Chi squre follows n symptotic distriution nd is more likely to e significnt in lrge smple, which is limittion of this sttistic. When we tested the synchronous nd cross-lgged effect of men s nd women s self-rted EI, we ssumed tht the pths were equl, nd this did not reduce the fit of the model (v 2 (2) =.1, p >.05). There were significnt ctor effects (ß =.032, SE =.014, n = 44, t = 2.25, p <.05) ut there were no prtner effects. (The stndrdized coefficients re presented in Fig. 1; see pths for the ctor effects nd pths for prtner effects.) These results indicted tht n individul s self-rted EI hd stle or constnt effect on their over the 12-month period, which supports Hypothesis 1. 3.5. Predicting chnges in We rn further series of nlyses using SEM to scertin which Time 1 vriles predicted chnges in Time 2. These nlyses test whether, on verge, people with low EI or who report more dysfunctionl communiction ptterns show greter decreses in reltionship compred to those with high EI or more functionl communiction ptterns, nd the sme seline levels of. We estimted the cross-lgged regression model for ctor nd prtner effects, nd we tested equlity constrints for ll pths in the model. In the finl model, s illustrted in Fig. 2, we ssumed equl pths for ll effects, nd this did not significntly drop the fit of the model (v 2 (3, n = 45) = 6, p >.05). The results indicted tht women s Time 1 reports of voidnce nd withholding communiction predicted declines in oth men s nd women s Time 2 reports of (ß =.151, SE =.016, t = 2.47, p <.05) (pth ) (n ctor nd prtner effect). (The stndrdized coefficients re presented in Fig. 2.) This finding supports Hypothesis 4, lthough Hypotheses 2 nd 3 regrding constructive communiction nd demnd-withdrw communiction were not supported. Unexpectedly, in the finl model, for individuls who reported high t Time 1, their scores predicted declines in their prtners t Time 2 (ß =.174, SE =.069, t = 2.52, p <.05) (pth ) ( prtner effect). Finlly, s theoreticlly expected, n individul s t Time 1 predicted their t Time 2 (ß =.553, SE =.074, t = 7.50, p <.01) (pth c) (n ctor effect). 4. Discussion This study ws designed to investigte the longitudinl influences of EI, conflict communiction ptterns nd reltionship st- T1 F SR EI.19.20* T2 Femle error f st 2.26*.32* T1 M SR EI.13.25* T2 Mle error m st 2 Fig. 1. Stndrdized prmeter estimtes for the finl model predicting the stle effect of Time 1 self-rted EI on Time 2. * Significnt coefficients.
742 L. Smith et l. / Personlity nd Individul Differences 45 (2008) 738 743 T1 Femle -.26 c.61 T2 Femle err f st 2 -.30.57 -.19 T1 Femle voidnce.31 -.26 -.30 T1 Mle.17.71 c T2 Mle err m st 2 Fig. 2. Stndrdized prmeter estimtes for the finl model predicting chnges in Time 2. * All coefficients re significnt. isfction in cohiting couples over 12-month period. We found tht the effect of n individul s self-rted EI on their own ws stle over the 12-month period nd ws not relted to chnges in. In contrst, women s reports of the voidnce nd withholding pttern of communiction predicted declines in oth men s nd women s t Time 2. These results suggest the different contriutions of self-rted EI nd communiction ptterns to reltionship over time. Consistent with Hypothesis 1, the effect of n individul s self-reported EI on their own ws stle longitudinlly, nd ws not ssocited with chnges in. There ws no evidence for prtner effects suggesting tht it is n individul s own personlity tht contriutes to their. These findings lso support reserch tht hs found tht personlity hs stle effect on nd is not ssocited with chnges in over time (Cughlin et l., 2000; Krney & Brdury, 1997). One unexpected finding ws tht individuls who reported greter t Time 1 hd prtners who reported declines in t Time 2. There is no theoreticl reson to expect this effect, nd it my hve occurred y chnce. However, this is one-yer snp shot of, nd s is known to fluctute over time (Brdury & Krney, 2004), it my e the cse tht exmining over longer period of time would provide clerer picture of the chnges in. Wht ws cler from the finl model, ws tht the strongest predictor of n individul s Time 2 ws their Time 1, nd this is consistent with current evidence nd theory (Krney & Brdury, 1995). In reltion to the conflict communiction ptterns, women s reports of voidnce nd withholding communiction predicted decreses in their own nd their prtner s. This supports Krney nd Brdury s (1997) finding tht interction processes, such s communiction, re ssocited with chnges in over time. However, it is often the demnd-withdrw pttern of communiction tht hs demonstrted the strongest effects in reltion to nd divorce (Gottmn & Levenson, 2000). We speculte here tht voidnce my e more significnt in long-term cohiting couples like those in our smple (Bodenmnn, Kiser, Hhlweg, & Fehm-Wolfsdorf, 1998; Smith et l., 2008). Consistent with this view, Gottmn nd Krokoff (1989), in smple of couples in long-term mrriges (M =23 yers mrried), found tht voidnce predicted dis over time, ut not cross-sectionlly. The reserchers rgued tht prtners who void discussion of prolems re t some risk over time ecuse they re not le to develop sense of working through their prolems together. Interestingly, women s reports of n voidnt pttern hd n importnt impct on their own s well s prtner, wheres men s reports of the voidnt pttern hd no effect. There is evidence tht women tend to e the inititors of prolem-solving discussions (Bll, Cown, & Cown, 1995) nd tht men tend to void nd withdrw more thn women (Christensen & Hevey, 1990). It my e tht if women void discussion of reltionship prolems, then issues re unlikely to e discussed nd resolved. This would explin the resulting declines in for oth prtners nd underlines the importnce of the womn s role in couples communiction over time. 4.1. Limittions nd conclusions This study is not without its limittions. First, self-report instruments were employed to mesure oth EI nd the conflict communiction ptterns. While dt were collected from oth prtners, which should reduce possile distortions regrding the reltionships in question, it is possile tht similr negtive or positive ises my hve occurred in oth sets of rtings. Secondly, the smple ws drwn from cquintnces of the reserchers nd proly overrepresented middle clss prticipnts. Thirdly, the smll smple size ment tht there ws limited sttisticl power nd the nlyses my not hve detected smll to medium-sized effects. Finlly, the rnges in ge nd length of cohittion of the prticipnts, lthough sttisticlly controlled for in the initil correltionl nlyses, my hve ffected the generlizility of the results. Notwithstnding these limittions, there were some interesting results. Self-reported EI hd stle effect on cross the 12-month period, nd it ws not predictive of chnges in. Insted, women s reports of voidnce nd withholding communiction predicted decreses in over the 12- month period for oth prtners. This finding underlines the corrosive effects of moderte to high levels of voidnce, nd lso suggests the importnce of the womn s role in couples communiction. References Bll, F. L. J., Cown, P., & Cown, C. P. (1995). Who s got the power? Gender differences in prtners perceptions of influence during mritl prolem-solving discussions. Fmily Process, 34, 303 321.
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