Chapter 7: Cognitive Aspects of Personality
Roots in Gestalt Psychology Human beings seek meaning in their environments We organize the sensations we receive into meaningful perceptions Complex stimuli are not reducible to the sum of their parts
Gestalt Psychology Gestalt-"essence or shape of an entity's complete form". Focused on perceptions and problem solving.
Gestalt Psychology A Gestalt perceptual figure Is the triangle shown in the image or constructed in the mind of the viewer?
Kurt Lewin s Field Theory Life space All internal and external forces, and their relationships to one another e.g., family, religion, work, etc. Personality define Contemporaneous causation Behavior is caused at the moment of its occurrence by all the forces acting at that moment
Cognitive style variables An individual distinctive, enduring way of dealing with everyday tasks of perception and problem solving
Field Dependence Rod-and-Frame Test Field dependent Field independent
Field Dependence Children s play preference Field independent children favor solitary play Socialization patterns Field independent people emphasize autonomy over conformity Career choice Field independent people prefer technological occupations
Field Dependence Interpersonal distance Field independent people tend to sit farther away from a conversational partner Eye contact Field independent people make less frequent and less prolonged eye contact with a conversational partner
Cognitive and perceptual mechanism
Jean Piaget : Schema Theory Schema A cognitive structure that organizes knowledge and expectations about one s environment Determines how we think and act Script Schemas for familiar events e.g., eating at a restaurant
Categorization We tend to organize events, objects, and people into categories Positive effects of categorization Quickly understand complex information Make likely inferences about new things Negative effects of categorization Stereotypes (A schema or belief about the personality traits that tend to be characteristic of members of some group) Overlook individuating characteristics
Control of Attention We notice salientenvironmental features and combine these with our current goals to decide where to direct our attention Individual differences in attention e.g., attention-deficit disorder
Human as scientist George Kelly
George Kelly Personal Construct Theory People actively endeavor to understand the world and construct their own theories about human behavior Every man is, in his own particular way, a scientist Kelly
Kelly: The Role Construct Repertory Test (p.234) Assesses personal construct systems Think of: A teacher you liked Your boss A successful person you know Which two are similar? How? Who is different? How? Over many triads, the test-taker s constructs emerge
Social Intelligence Knowledge and skills relevant to interpersonal situations Including: empathy, compassion, humor, etc. Emotional intelligence ( the set of emotional abilities specific to dealing with other people) Emotion knowledge (the ability to recognize and interpret emotions in the self and others) Similar to Howard Gardner s multiple intelligences theory (human have at least 7 different ways of knowing about the world) Interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence
Explanatory Style A characteristic way of interpreting life events Optimism and Pessimism Optimistic style is generally associated with better outcomes Implications for achievement Learned Helplessness (Seligman) Repeated exposure to unavoidablepunishment leads to the acceptance of avoidable punishment Cognitive intervention can reduce the depressive effect of pessimism
Julian Rotter s Locus of control
Julian Rotter Behavior depends upon outcome expectancy and reinforcement value Outcome expectancy Person s expectation that his or her behavior will be reinforced Reinforcement value Value of the expected reinforcer to the individual
Julian Rotter Behavior potential Likelihood that a behavior will be performed in a particular situation Generalized vs. specific expectancies Generalized expectancies apply to categories of behaviors and situations Specific expectancies apply to particular instances of behaviors and situations
Julian Rotter Six psychological needs Recognition-status Dominance Independence Protection-dependency Love and affection Physical comfort Secondary reinforcers Associated with satisfaction of these needs
Julian Rotter Locus of control Beliefs about one s ability to affect outcomes Stable individual difference Internal locus of control Outcomes are the result of one s own actions More achievement-oriented External locus of control Believe events are beyond their personal control Includes components of chance and powerful others More likely to suffer stress and depression
Albert Bandura : Social Cognitive Learning Theory
Albert Bandura Self-system The set of cognitive processes by which a person perceives, evaluates, and regulates his or her own behavior so it s functionally efficient and appropriate
Albert Bandura How can new behaviors be acquired in the absence of reinforcement? Observational Learning Vicarious learning and modeling Learning Aggressive Behavior Bobo doll experiments
Albert Bandura Factors that influence modeling: Outcome expectancy People are more likely to imitate behaviors that they believe lead to positive outcomes Characteristics of the model Age, gender, status, competence, etc. Characteristics of the behavior Simple and salient behaviors Attributes of the observer Self-esteem, dependence, cognitive development
Albert Bandura Processes underlying observational learning Attention Retention Motor reproduction Motivation
Albert Bandura Self-efficacy A belief abut how competently one will be able to enact a behavior in a particular situation Self-efficacy determines: If we even try to act How long we persist in our behavior How success or failure affects future behavior
Albert Bandura Self-efficacy is based on: Past success and failures at similar tasks Vicarious experiences (seeing others) Verbal persuasion (by others) Emotional reactions (how we feel about the behavior) Self-efficacy is specific to the situation/behavior Unlike self-esteem, which is global
Albert Bandura Self-regulation People s control over their own achievements Setting goals for themselves Evaluating their success Rewarding themselves Includes self-efficacy and schemas Focuses on internal control of behavior Intrapersonal approach Close to social psychological approaches
Humans as Computers People as information processors Similar to how computers manipulate information Shortcomings of artificial intelligence Turing Test Personality is difficult to simulate
Timeline: Cognitive Approach Developments in Cognitive Aspects Philosophers and theologians view individual deviations as games of the gods or possession by the devil Laboratories studying perception and thinking are founded Ancient times and Middle Ages 1800s Societal and Scientific Context Differences in perceptions seen primarily in religious or philosophical terms Increasing emphasis on reason and rationality, philosophers search for the core of human nature
Timeline: Cognitive Approach Developments in Cognitive Aspects Gestalt psychology takes hold in Europe Field theory ideas of Lewin and schema ideas of Piaget make their way into American psychology 1900-1930 1930s- 1940s Societal and Scientific Context Experimental Psychology in U.S. is increasingly dominated by behaviorism In reaction to world war, increased studies of propaganda, attitudes, and prejudice
Timeline: Cognitive Approach Developments in Cognitive Aspects Kelly develops personal construct theory; educators study how children learn Rotter, Bandura, and others adapt behaviorist approaches into the cognitive framework 1940s- 1950s 1960s- 1970 Societal and Scientific Context Cognitive psychology grows and behaviorism wanes; cybernetics, computers, and enhanced communications Social psychology thrives; time of social and artistic change and turmoil
Timeline: Cognitive Approach Developments in Cognitive Aspects Research on explanatory style, optimism and depression; learning disabilities receive much attention Studies of self-efficacy and of human-computer interactions thrive; selfregulation models develop 1970s- 1980s 1990s Societal and Scientific Context Progress in cognitive psychology; new work roles, coupled with new family structures and fewer extended families Better understandings of the individual in the work place
Timeline: Cognitive Approach Developments in Cognitive Aspects Greater integration of cognitive conceptions (intelligence, skill, evaluation) into personality theory 2000s Societal and Scientific Context Greater focus on the role of motivation, expectations, social factors in achievement
Cognitive Approach Analogy Humans as scientists and information processors
Cognitive Approach Advantages Explains personality through uniquely human processes of cognition Captures active nature of human thought Differences in cognitive skills are viewed as central to individuality
Cognitive Approach Limits Often ignores unconscious and emotional aspects of personality Some theories tend to oversimplify complex thought processes May underemphasize situational influences on behavior
Cognitive Approach View of free will Free will through active human thought processes
Cognitive Approach Common assessment techniques Decision tasks, biographical analysis, attributional analyses, study of cognitive development, observation
Cognitive Approach Implications for therapy Uses understanding of perception, cognition, and attribution to change thought processes Emotion and behavior can be changed by changing cognitions