Janet Belsky s Experiencing the Lifespan, 3e Chapter 1: The People and The Field Who We Are and What We Study Lifespan development: the scientific study of human development throughout life Conception, Infancy, Childhood, Adolescence, Emerging Adulthood, and Adulthood Gerontology Study of lifespan development is multidisciplinary Developmentalists explore Predictable milestones in development Individual differences Nature versus Nurture Temperament, Talent, Traits Normative and non-normative transitions Four Contexts of Development Cohort: birth group e.g., baby boom cohort Socioeconomic Status (SES) education and income level Developed world; Developing world Culture Collectivist and Individualist Gender Changing Conceptions of Childhood Historical Background Poverty; high mortality rates Child abuse common Norms: Child labor; child abandonment among poor 17 th & 18 th centuries: philosophers visions John Locke Humans born a tabula rasa Jean Jacques Rousseau Infants are innocent We should lovingly nurture babies These practices not instituted until early 20 th century 1
Changing Conceptions of Childhood Late 19 th Century: kinder, gentler view of children Childhood protected, dependent life stage Universal education: primary school mandatory 20 th Century: Adolescence: identified by G. Stanley Hall Stage of Storm and Stress between childhood and adulthood In the 1930s, President Franklin Roosevelt ordered high school attendance as mandatory. Emerging Adulthood: newest life stage Age 18 to late 20s Time for personal exploration Changing Conceptions of Later Life: Adulthood and Old Age Life Expectancy Low before 20 th century medical advances Today, 20 th century life expectancy revolution! Infectious diseases wiped out Present-day chronic diseases (heart disease, cancer, diabetes) New Stages Young-old (60s, 70s) Old-old (80s and beyond) Cohort Changes in Adult and Late Life The Great Recession of 2008 Late 20 th -Century Revolution in Lifestyles Baby boomers come of age (60s-early 70s) Civil Rights; Women s Movement; Sexual Revolution Positive change: more open society with ability to make new choices at any time of life Negative changes related to economics: single parenthood; poverty 2
Theories of Development Theory Any perspective that attempts to explain individual behavior Allows us to predict behavior Presents ideas for interventions to improve behavior Nature/Nurture Are we shaped by biological/genetic forces or is the environment more influential? We ll look at each theory from this perspective. Behaviorism: The Original Nurture Theory Traditional Behaviorism: John Watson and B. F. Skinner Nurture is all important! A real science: study observable, measurable responses If we understand the scientific laws of learning, we can produce any behavior we want! B. F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning Conditioning = Learning Operant Conditioning The law of learning that determines any voluntary response Variable reinforcement schedules We behave a certain way because we are reinforced (rewarded) for certain behaviors. Any behavior that is reinforced is likely to be repeated. Any behavior that is not reinforced is likely to be extinguished. A Different Perspective: Cognitive Behaviorism (Social Learning Theory) Albert Bandura Cognition and Modeling Learn by modeling (imitating) others We model people who are nurturant, or involved with us. We model those whom we perceive as being like us. e.g., At about age 2, gender identification and genderspecific behaviors develop. Our perceptions about reinforcers (rewards) determine our behavior. 3
Bandura: Cognitive Behaviorism Self-Efficacy Our belief in our competence Our sense that through our own efforts, we can be successful at a given task A strong sense of self-efficacy is an important factor in healthy child development. How can we enhance self-efficacy during childhood and at any time of life? Attachment Theory (mid-20 th Century): Nature, Nurture, and Love Formulated by John Bowlby Shared Freud s psychoanalytic view: Early life experiences with caregivers shape our personality. Determines whether we become well-adjusted or emotionally impaired adults Bowlby s Main Focus: attachment response Bowlby was an early evolutionary psychologist. Attachment response is genetically programmed into our species to promote survival. Early attachments affect development. Evolutionary Psychology: Nature Behavioral Genetics: Nature Evolutionary psychologists focus on biological predispositions: Inborn, species-specific behaviors influence human development. Speculate about the genetic roots of human behaviors Survival of the fittest! Field devoted to scientifically determining the role that hereditary forces play in individual differences in behavior: Twin Studies (identical and fraternal) Adoption Studies Twin/Adoption Studies Heritability: ranges from 1 (totally genetic) to 0 (no genetic contribution) Statistic to summarize the extent to which a given behavior is shaped by genetics Monozygotic Dizygotic 4
Nature and Nurture Combined Person Environment Fit Nature interacts with Nurture when studying human development! Evocative Forces Inborn talents and temperamental tendencies naturally evoke certain responses from others. Bidirectional forces in relationships Active Forces We actively select our environments based on our genetic tendencies. Person Environment Fit crucial to flourishing in life! The extent to which the environment is tailored to our biological tendencies and talents The basic goal of developmental science is to foster the correct person environment fit. The real impact of the nature revolution is to allow us to intervene to change the environment in order to enhance one s quality of life. Age-Linked Theories: Freud Psychoanalytic Theory Analyzes our psyche or inner life Deterministic: mothering during first five years determines adult personality and mental health Id, Ego, Superego Age-Linked Stages Focus on erogenous zones Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency Therapy = Psychoanalysis Psychosocial Development: Erikson Considered the father of lifespan development Believed we continue to develop throughout life Exception to Freud s idea that development ends in adolescence Identified core developmental tasks, or psychosocial tasks, for each of eight stages from infancy to old age Believed that we need to master the task of each previous stage in order to progress to the next 5
A Preview of Erikson s Stages Age-Linked Theories: Piaget Cognitive-Developmental Theory Qualitatively different stages exist in the way thinking develops (different age groups conceptualize the world in completely different ways). Schemas (cognitive structures) Assimilation, Accommodation Studies focused on children Cognitive Development: Piaget A Preview of Piaget s Stages Tried to understand the unique qualities of childhood cognition by entering children s mental framework, setting up tests, watching children s actions, and listening to them speak Believed that we grow mentally through assimilation, fitting information from the outside world into our schemas (or current mental capacities), and accommodation, enlarging our capacities to fit in this data from the world 6
Summary of Major Current Theories in Lifespan Development The Developmental Systems Perspective Urie Bronfenbrenner: Highlighted multidirectional forces in human development The total ecology, or life situation of the child, influences his/her development. Developmental Systems Approach: Stresses the need to use many different approaches in understanding human behavior We must look at the interaction of processes (genes, environment, family, society, culture). Research Methods Research Methods: Correlational Two standard research strategies: Correlational Study Researchers chart the relationships between variables. Correlation does not mean causation! Experiments Randomly assign individuals to groups. Give each group a different treatment. Experimental group and Control group Determine if intervention produced a predicted effect. Experiments can determine cause! 7
Research Methods: Experiments Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Studies: How do we change with age? Cross-Sectional Testing and comparing different age groups at the same time Gives differences between age groups Does not tell us the changes that occur with age Longitudinal Test at intervals one group over many years Dunedin Multidisciplinary and Development Study Quantitative and Qualitative Research Quantitative The typical research mode in developmental science using groups and statistical analyses to make general predictions about behavior Qualitative Scientist not interested in numerical comparisons Studying the life of a single person through observation and interviews, or observing a single individual in depth 8