Janet Belsky s Experiencing the Lifespan, 2e Chapter 1: The People and The Field Four Contexts of Development Cohort: birth group baby boom cohort Socioeconomic Status (SES) education and income level Developed world; Developing world Culture Collectivist and Individualist Gender Who We Are and What We Study Lifespan development is the scientific study of: Infant and Child Development Adult Development Gerontology Exploration of predictable milestones in development Individual Differences Nature versus Nurture Temperament, Talent, Traits Life Transitions and Practices Normative and Non-Normative Transitions Lifespan development is multidisciplinary Changing Perceptions of Childhood Historical Background Mortality rates high; poverty Childhood not perceived as a special life stage Abusive treatment common Children assume adulthood responsibilities much earlier Norms: child labor; child abandonment among poor John Locke s vision of childhood (tabula rasa) Jean Jacques Rousseau s vision: lovingly nurture babies practices not instituted until early 20 th Century 1
Changing Perceptions of Childhood Modern view, late 19 th Century: kinder, gentler view of children Childhood protected, dependent life stage Universal education: primary school mandatory Adolescence: identified by G. Stanley Hall in early 20 th Century Stage of Storm and Stress between childhood and adulthood In 1930s, High school attendance became mandatory (Great Depression and President Franklin Roosevelt) Emerging Adulthood: newest life stage Age 18 to late 20s Time for personal exploration Cohort Changes in Adult and Late Life Late 20 th Century Revolution in Lifestyles Baby boomers come of age (60s- early 70s) Civil Rights; Women s lib ; Sexual revolution Positive change: more open society with ability to make new choices at any time of life Negative changes related to economics: single parenthood; poverty Changing Perceptions of Later Life: Adulthood and Old Age Life Expectancy Before 20 th century medical advances, average life expectancy was low Today, twentieth-century life expectancy revolution! Infectious diseases wiped out Chronic diseases (heart disease, cancer, etc.) today New Stages Young-old (60s, 70s) Old-old (80s and beyond) Theories of Development Theory Any perspective which attempts to explain individual behavior Allows us to predict behavior Presents ideas for interventions to improve behavior Nature/Nurture Are we shaped by biological/genetic forces or is the environment more influential? We ll look at each theory from this perspective. 2
Behaviorism: The Original Nurture Theory Traditional Behaviorism: John Watson and B. F. Skinner Nurture is all important! A real science: study observable, measurable responses If we understand the scientific laws of learning we can produce any behavior we want! A Different Perspective: Cognitive Behaviorism (Social Learning Theory) Albert Bandura Cognition and Modeling Learn by modeling (imitating) others We model people who are nurturant, or involved with us. Model those we perceive to be like us Gender labels and behaviors Our perceptions about reinforcers (rewards) determine our behavior. B. F. SKINNER OPERANT CONDITIONING Conditioning = Learning Operant Conditioning The law of learning that determines any voluntary response. Variable reinforcement schedules We behave a certain way because we are reinforced (rewarded) for certain behaviors. Any behavior that is reinforced is likely to be repeated. Any behavior that is not reinforced is likely to be extinguished. Bandura: Cognitive Behaviorism Self-Efficacy Our belief in our competence Our sense that we can be successful at a given task A sense of efficacy is an important factor in healthy child development How can we enhance self-efficacy during childhood and at any time of life? 3
Attachment Theory (mid 20 th Century): Nature, Nurture, and Love Formulated by John Bowlby Shared Freud s psychoanalytic view: early life experiences with caregivers shape our personality Determines whether we become well-adjusted or emotionally impaired adults. Bowlby s Main Focus: attachment response Attachment response genetically programmed into our species to promote survival Early attachments affect development Bowlby an early evolutionary psychologist Behavioral Genetics: Nature Field devoted to scientifically determining the role that hereditary forces play in individual differences in behavior Twin Studies (identical and fraternal) Adoption Studies Twin/Adoption Studies Heritability- 1 (totally genetic) to 0 (no genetic contribution) Statistic to summarize the extent to which a given behavior is shaped by genetics Evolutionary Psychology: Nature Evolutionary psychologists focus on biological predispositions Inborn, species-specific behaviors influence human development Speculate about the genetic roots of human behaviors Survival of the fittest! Nature and Nurture Combined Consider both nature and nurture when studying human development! Evocative Forces Inborn talents and temperamental tendencies naturally evoke certain responses from others. Bidirectional forces in relationships Active Forces We actively select our environments based on our genetic tendencies. Person-Environment Fit crucial to flourishing in life! 4
Person-Environment Fit Basic goal of developmental science is to foster the correct personenvironment fit The real impact of the nature revolution is to allow us to intervene to change the environment in order to enhance one s quality of life. Cognitive Development: Piaget Tried to understand the unique qualities of childhood cognition by entering children s mental framework, setting up tests, watching children s actions, and listening to them speak. Believed that we grow mentally through assimilation, fitting information from the outside world into our schemas (or current mental capacities), and accommodation, enlarging our capacities to fit in this data from the world. Age-Linked Theories: Piaget Cognitive-Developmental Theory Qualitatively different stages exist in the way thinking develops (different age groups conceptualize the world in completely different ways). Schemas (cognitive structures) Assimilation, Accommodation Studies focused on children A Preview of Piaget s Stages 5
Psychosocial Development: Erikson Considered the father of lifespan development Believed we continue to develop throughout life Exception to Freud s idea that development ends in adolescence Identified core developmental tasks, or psychosocial tasks, for each of eight stages from infancy to old age Believed that we need to master the task of each previous stage in order to progress to the next. The Developmental Systems Perspective Urie Bronfenbrenner Among the first theorists to highlight multidirectional forces in human development The total ecology, or life situation of the child, influences his/her development Developmental Systems Approach: stress the need to use many different approaches in understanding human behavior believe we must look at the interaction of processes (genes, environment, family, society, culture) A Preview of Erikson s Stages Research Methods Two standard research strategies: Correlations Relate two or more variables as they naturally occur Correlation does not mean causation! Experiments Randomly assign individuals to groups Give each group a different treatment Determine if intervention produced a predicted effect Experiments can determine cause! 6
Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Studies: How do we change with age? Cross-Sectional Testing and comparing different age groups Gives differences between age groups Does not tell us the changes that occur with age Longitudinal Test at intervals one group over many years Note: It s all statistics. These methods are valuable, not because they apply to everyone but because they allow us to make educated guesses about human life! Quantitative and Qualitative Research Quantitative The typical research mode in developmental science using groups and statistical analyses to make general predictions about behavior Qualitative Scientist not interested in numerical comparisons Studying through observation and interviews the life of a single person, or observing a single individual in depth 7