PSYC 221 Introduction to General Psychology Session 13 Summary Lecturer: Dr. Joana Salifu Yendork, Psychology Department Contact Information: jyendork@ug.edu.gh College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 2016/2017
Session Overview Several topics in Psychology have been discussed so far. We will attempt to do a recap of the thrust of topics discussed. In this session, I will summarize the main ideas that I aimed to communicate to you during the previous sessions. Slide 2
Session Outline The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows: Key concepts Key theories Subfields in psychology Slide 3
Reading List Students are encouraged to read through all previous slides and recommended chapters Slide 4
Topic One KEY CONCEPTS Slide 5
Key concepts Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism s physical state, mental state and environment (Feldman, 2007; Wolfe, nd.) Neurons are the basic elements of the nervous system and are involved in controlling behavior Sensation is the process by which our sense receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies (Myers, 2008) Perception is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, thus enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events (Myers, 2008) Slide 6
Key concepts Consciousness is the awareness of the sensation, thought and feeling that is being experienced at a given moment (Feldman, 2007). Learning: Relatively permanent change in an organism s behaviour due to experience Habituation: decline in responses of organism s response to stimulus once that stimulus becomes familiar. Generalization is the tendency for stimuli similar to CS to elicit similar responses Slide 7
Key concepts Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations. Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. Punishment is an aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows Memory is the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information (Myers, 2008). Forgetting is the inability to retrieve stored information Slide 8
Key concepts Teratogens: any disease, drug, or other environmental agent that can harm a developing embryo or fetus by causing physical deformities, severely retarded growth, blindness, brain damage, or even death Attachment refers to an emotional tie to another person. Temperament refers to a person s characteristic style and intensity of emotional reactivity Personality is the distinctive pattern of behavior, mannerisms, thoughts, and emotions that characterizes an individual over time and across situations Trait: An enduring quality that makes a person tend to act a certain way. Slide 9
Key concepts Psychological disorders are persistent patterns of thoughts, feelings, or actions that are deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional. Attitudes are feelings and beliefs that predispose one to respond in a particular way to objects, people and events Foot-in-the-door phenomenon: tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request. Normative social influence is the influence resulting from a person s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval. Informational social influence is the influence resulting from one s willingness to accept others opinions about reality. Slide 10
Key concepts Social facilitation: Refers to improved/stronger performance on tasks in the presence of others. Social loafing: refers to the tendency of an individual in a group to exert less effort toward attaining a common goal than when tested individually Deindividuation refers to the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. Prejudice is an unjustifiable (usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Slide 11
Key concepts Stress the process by which individuals perceive and respond to certain events (called stressors), that we appraise as threatening or challenging. Stressor is an event or condition which we view as threatening, challenging, or overwhelming. Grit refers to a combination of desire for achievement and the ability/willingness to persist at hard work. Slide 12
Topic Two KEY THEORIES Slide 13
Key theories Psychosexual Development: Psychoanalytic viewpoint Erikson's Psychosocial Theory Learning Theories: Behaviorism, Operant learning theory, Social cognitive theory Cognitive development: Piaget s cognitive development Trait theory Social-cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986, 2001) Slide 14
People face 8 major crises during the course of their lives (labeled as psychosocial stages) Each crisis emerges at a distinct time dictated by biological maturation and the social demands that developing people experience at particular points in life. Each crisis must be resolved successfully to prepare for a satisfactory resolution of the next life crisis When conflict arise, people have the chance to grow or fail equally Each stage involves unique developmental task presenting the person with a crisis to resolve Crises are turning points characterized by increased vulnerability and potential Slide 15
Topic Three SUB-FIELDS IN PSYCHOLOGY Slide 16
Sub-fields in psychology Behavioural neuroscience: focuses on explaining how the brain and nervous system as well as other biological processes determine behaviour Experimental psychology: studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning and thinking about the world Developmental psychology examines how people are continually developing, physically, cognitively, and socially, through out the lifespan (Myers, 2008) Personality psychology focuses on the stability in people s behaviour over time and the traits that differentiate one person from another Slide 17
Sub-fields in psychology Health psychology is the branch of psychology that investigates the psychological factors related to wellness and illness, including the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of medical problems. Clinical psychology focuses on studying, diagnosing and treating psychological disorders as well as research on mental illnesses. Counseling psychology focuses primarily on educational, social and career adjustment problems. Evolutionary psychology: Analyzes human behavioral tendencies by examining their adaptive value from an evolutionary perspective Social psychology is the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. Slide 18
Sub-fields in psychology Industrial-organizational psychology is a branch of psychology that applies psychological principles to the workplace, with the aim of improving organisational effectiveness and the quality of work life. Personnel psychology: applies psychology s methods and principles to selecting and evaluating workers. Organizational psychology: examine how work environments and management styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity. They also modify jobs and supervision to ways that boost morale and productivity Human factors psychology: explores how machines and environments can be optimally designed to fit human abilities and expectations. help to design appliances, machines, Web sites, and work settings that fit our natural perception Slide 19