THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES I. Lecturer: Dr. Paul Narh Doku Contact: Department of Psychology, University of Ghana

Transcription

1 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES I Lecturer: Dr. Paul Narh Doku Contact: pndoku@ug.edu.gh Department of Psychology, University of Ghana

2 Session Overview This session will deal with the meaning and scope of psychology, misconceptions about psychology, pseudoscience (para- and pseudo psychology), the goals of psychology and the relevance of psychology in our lives.

3 This Session s Goals and Objectives At the end of this session, you will be able to: Define or explain what a theory is. Explain the key words in the definition of theory. List at least three relevance issues of a theory. Explain the main ideas and assumptions underlying the learning theory. Mention the various forms the theory takes. List two of the contributions of the theory. Mention two of the criticisms made against each theory discussed.

4 Session Outline The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows: Part I - Meaning and scope of psychology Part II - Misconceptions about psychology, Part III - Pseudoscience (para- and pseudo psychology) Part IV - The goals of psychology Part V - The relevance of psychology in our

5 Reading List Pastorino, E., and Doyle-Portillo, S. (2006). What is psychology? Thompson wadsworth. P Weiten, W. (2007). Psychology: Themes & variations (7 th ed). P Kalat, W. J. (2014). Introduction to psychology (10 th ed). Wadsworth, cengage learning. Pp Coon, D. and Mitterer, O. J (2012). Psychology: modules for active learning (13 th ed). Cengage learning. Pp Nairne, S. J. (2014). Psychology (6 th ed). Wadsworth, cengage learning. Pp The session notes titled theoretical perspective I

6 TOPIC 4: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY Dr. Paul Narh Doku

7 What is a Theory? A theory is a group of logically organised laws. An explanation of facts and relationships in science (Lahey, 2003). An integrated set of principles that organise and predict observable behaviours or events. A comprehensive explanation of a natural phenomena which leads to accurate prediction.

8 A scientific theory summarizes a hypothesis or group of hypotheses that have been supported with repeated testing. If enough evidence accumulates to support a hypothesis, it moves to the next step - known as a theory and becomes accepted as a valid explanation of a phenomenon. 12/09/14

9 The science of psychology is one where there are many approaches/theories to solve, work with and explain behaviour and what is happening with the mind. Each of the theories has merit. It is more a matter of personal preferences and some take a bit from each other to form their own perspective. It is worth understanding each of these contemporary perspectives in psychology. 12/09/14

10 There are various different approaches in contemporary psychology. An approach is a perspective (i.e. view) that involves certain assumptions (i.e. beliefs) about human behaviour: the way they function, which aspects of them are worthy of study and what research methods are appropriate for undertaking this study. There may be several different theories within an approach, but they all share these common assumptions. 12/09/14

11 Biological Perspective

12 Biological Theory/Perspective Based on the assumption that all behaviours correspond in one way or the other to the activities of the brain and the nervous system. The theory seeks the link between the electrical and chemical activity of the brain, the chemical activity of hormones, and heredity on one hand, and behaviour and mental processes on the other. According to this perspective, humans differ because they are born with different genes, and develop slightly different brain and hormonal patterns

13 Biological Some of the issues covered under this perspective are: How does the brain work? How is it related to thoughts, feelings perception and abnormal behaviour? Do certain genes predispose the individual to drug and alcohol abuse? How are messages transmitted through the body?

14 Merits Understanding of human behaviour with its emphasis on roles of hormones, genes, central nervous system and other internal activities and mechanisms of the individual. Has led to a lot of research on brain and hormones which have demonstrated the link between internal mechanisms and overt behaviour. Has deepened understanding of biological basis of behaviour and psychopathalogy and other illness.

15 Demerits Emphasis on biology as main basis of behaviour takes away responsibility from the individual. The nature of studies makes it difficult to use human beings instead animals are usually used for such studies Since animals are not same as human there is a limit to which these studies will be applicable to humans The approach is too mechanistic and take a rather reductionist view of humans.

16 Evolutionary Perspective

17 Evolutionary Perspective Focus on evolution of behaviour and mental processes. Evolutionary psychologists believe that much of human social behaviour such as aggressive behaviour and mate selection have hereditary basis. They were behaviours passed from generation to generation because they have survival value.

18 Merits Evolutionary psychologists hold that behaviours or traits that occur universally in all cultures are good candidates for evolutionary adaptations including the abilities to infer others' emotions, discern kin from non-kin, identify and prefer healthier mates, and cooperate with others. 12/09/14

19 Merits Continues They report successful tests of theoretical predictions related to such topics as infanticide, intelligence, marriage patterns, promiscuity, perception of beauty, bride price, and parental investment The theories and findings of EP have applications in many fields, including economics, environment, health, law, management, psychiatry, politics, and literature.

20 Demerits Controversies concerning EP involve questions of testability, Cognitive and evolutionary assumptions (such as modular functioning of the brain, and large uncertainty about the ancestral environment), Importance of non-genetic and non-adaptive explanations, As well as political and ethical issues due to interpretations of research results. 12/09/14

21 Behavioural/Learning Perspective The theory lays emphasis on the environment and observable behaviour as manifested in the stimulus and response (S-R) mechanism. Based on assumption that Behaviour (B) is a function of a Person (P) and information gained from the Environment (E). That is B= (P &E) The take the position that that a person s mind is empty at birth (tabula rasa) but it is environment which imprints on it as a result of experience. Learning/ Experience drives behaviour

22 Three types of learning Learning by association (classical conditioning) Operant Learning (Instrumental learning) Social learning (observational learning)

23 Learning by association (classical conditioning) Classical conditioning is learning by association because it is based on pairing two or more stimuli over a period. Attributed to the work of Ivan Pavlov ( ) while studying physiology of digestion in dogs. He paired the sound of a bell with presentation of meat loaf to a dog over period. After a number of pairings between the sound of a bell followed immediately with presentation of meat loaf, later the mere sound of a bell elicited the same response (salivation)

24 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING UCS (meat) UCR (salivation) (unconditioned stimulus) response) (unconditioned NS (Bell) NR (no salivation) (Neutral Stimulus) NS + UCS (bell + meat) CS (Bell) (conditioned Stimulus) response) (No Response) UCR (salivation) CR (conditioned

25 Learning by association The process of paring the NS and the UCS is called the trial period. The time required for pairing to develop the association depends on organism involved, the kind of UCS and the type of neutral stimulus involved. In addition, learning by association involves four other principles. a. Learned generalization, b. Learned discrimination, c. Extinction and d. Spontaneous recovery

26 Operant Learning

27 Operant /Instrumental Learning In operant learning, an act is performed before reward is presented. An organisms has to make conscious effort to bring the behaviour into existence Behaviour is shaped by its consequences. This is influenced by Edward Thorndike s three laws Law of Effect (behaviour followed by a reward has high probability of being repeated and ) Law of Exercise (practice strengthens the learning, disuse weakens it) Law of Readiness (If one is not prepared to learn, learning cannot be automatically instilled in him). In OC, reward and punishment are key understanding behaviour. Influential theorists are B.F Skinner and J. B Watson.

28 Social Learning (Observational) Learning by observing others (modelling and imitating others) Albert Bandura admitted that external rewards may be key in getting people to perform learned behaviour, he emphasized on intrinsic reward and punishment as against external ones. Individuals are more likely to imitate those they like, respect, and regard as competent. Generally, the performance of an observed act depends on the consequences of what happens to the model Behaviour depends on what is observed, intrinsic rewards and punishments associated with the behaviour, the prevailing norms and who one s model is

29 MERITS Emphasis on observable behaviour and environment. Focus on observable behaviour removes subjective interpretations and ambiguities. Makes psychology more scientific. Places responsibility in terms of behaviour on individual and society as against nature, biology or heredity. The role of reward and punishment in shaping behaviour.

30 Demerits Present individuals as passive beings who just imbibe what society presents without playing active role. Has no place for biological factors Maturation is unimportant to behaviour Too much emphasis on reward and punishment