SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY AND REASONING SKILLS

SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY AND REASONING SKILLS Leaders in medical education believe that tomorrow s physicians need to be able to combine scientific knowledge with skills in scientific inquiry and reasoning. With that in mind, the MCAT exam will ask you to demonstrate four scientific inquiry and reasoning skills that natural, behavioral, and social scientists rely on to advance their work: Knowledge of Scientific Concepts and Principles Demonstrating understanding of scientific concepts and principles Identifying the relationships between closely-related concepts Scientific Reasoning and Problem Solving Reasoning about scientific principles, theories, and models Analyzing and evaluating scientific explanations and predictions Reasoning about the Design and Execution of Research Demonstrating understanding of important components of scientific research Reasoning about ethical issues in research Data-Based and Statistical Reasoning Interpreting patterns in data presented in tables, figures, and graphs Reasoning about data and drawing conclusions from them The discussion that follows describes each of the skills and how you may be asked to demonstrate them. Three sample test questions are provided to illustrate each skill: one from the Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior section; one from the Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems section; and one from the Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems section. Also included are explanations of how each question tests a specific scientific inquiry and reasoning skill. Skill 1: Knowledge of Scientific Concepts and Principles 2015 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 1

The questions in this skill category will ask you to demonstrate your knowledge of the 10 foundational concepts described earlier in this chapter. These questions will ask you to recognize, recall, or define basic concepts in the natural, behavioral, and social sciences as well as their relationships with one another. The concepts and scientific principles may be represented by words, graphs, tables, diagrams, or formulas. As you work on these questions, you may be asked to recognize a scientific fact or define a concept. Or you may be asked to apply a scientific principle to a problem. Questions may ask you to identify the relationships between closely-related concepts or relate verbal to graphic representations of science content. They may ask you to identify examples of observations that illustrate scientific principles. Questions may ask you to recognize a scientific concept shown in a diagram or represented in a graph. Or they may give you a mathematical equation and ask you to use it to solve a problem. Questions that test this skill will ask you to show that you understand scientific concepts and principles by, for example, Recognizing correct scientific principles Identifying the relationships among closely-related concepts Identifying the relationships between different representations of concepts (e.g., verbal, symbolic, graphic) Identifying examples of observations that illustrate scientific principles Using mathematical equations to solve problems By way of example, questions from the Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior section may ask you to demonstrate your knowledge of scientific concepts and principles by Recognizing the principle of retroactive interference Using Weber s Law to identify physical differences that are detectable Identifying the behavioral change (extinction) that will occur when a learned response is no longer followed by a reinforcer Identifying the relationship between operant conditioning and classical conditioning Identifying a graph that illustrates the relationship between educational attainment and life expectancy Recognizing conditions that result in learned helplessness Recognizing a demographic trend that is represented in a population pyramid The three sample questions that follow illustrate Skill 1 questions from, respectively, the Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior section; the Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems section; and the Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological System section of the MCAT exam. 2015 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 2

SKILL 1 EXAMPLE FROM THE PSYCHOLOGICAL, SOCIAL, AND BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR Which series correctly sequences the types of cells involved in the transmission of information from sound detection to the moment when an individual turns his or her head in response to the sound? A. Sensory neurons, interneurons, afferent neurons, skeletal muscle cells B. Sensory neurons, efferent neurons, interneurons, skeletal muscle cells C. Mechanoreceptors, sensory neurons, interneurons, motor neurons, skeletal muscle cells D. Mechanoreceptors, sensory neurons, interneurons, afferent neurons, skeletal muscle cells The correct answer is C. This Skill 1 question tests your knowledge of the scientific concepts and principles described by Content Category 6A, Sensing the environment, and is a Skill 1 question because it requires you to relate scientific concepts. This question asks you to recognize and sequence the correct order of receptors and neurons involved in sensory processing and to conclude that C is the correct answer. SKILL 1 EXAMPLE FROM THE BIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL FOUNDATIONS OF LIVING SYSTEMS How are the basal layer of the epidermis and the innermost lining of the small intestine similar? A. Both are nondividing tissues. B. Both are derived from ectoderm. C. Both are composed of squamous cells. D. The cells of both are connected by tight junctions. The correct answer is D. It is a Skill 1 question and assesses knowledge of Content Category 2A, Assemblies of molecules, cells, and groups of cells within singular cellular and multicellular organisms. It is a Skill 1 question because it requires you to recall the structural and embryological characteristics of two tissues and relate them to one another. To answer this question correctly, you must identify a similarity between the basal layer of the epidermis and the innermost lining of the small intestine. SKILL 1 EXAMPLE FROM THE CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS In Michaelis-Menten enzyme kinetics, what is the velocity of the reaction when the substrate concentration is equal to KM? A. ¼Vmax B. ½Vmax C. Vmax D. 2Vmax 2015 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 3

The correct answer is B. This is a Skill 1 question and relates to Content Category 5E, Principles of chemical thermodynamics and kinetics. It is a Skill 1 question because you must recognize the relationship between two variables in the context of an experiment. To answer the question, you must recognize KM, recall its significance in Michaelis-Menten enzyme kinetics, and relate it to another fundamental variable, Vmax. Skill 2: Scientific Reasoning and Problem Solving Questions that test scientific reasoning and problem-solving skills differ from questions in the previous category by asking you to use your scientific knowledge to solve problems in the natural, behavioral, and social sciences. As you work on questions that test this skill, you may be asked to use scientific theories to explain observations or make predictions about natural or social phenomena. Questions may ask you to judge the credibility of scientific explanations or to evaluate arguments about cause and effect. Or they may ask you to use scientific models and observations to draw conclusions. They may ask you to recognize scientific findings that call a theory or model into question. Questions in this category may ask you to look at pictures or diagrams and draw conclusions from them. Or they may ask you to determine and then use scientific formulas to solve problems. You will be asked to show that you can use scientific principles to solve problems by, for example, Reasoning about scientific principles, theories, and models Analyzing and evaluating scientific explanations and predictions Evaluating arguments about causes and consequences Bringing together theory, observations, and evidence to draw conclusions Recognizing scientific findings that challenge or invalidate a scientific theory or model Determining and using scientific formulas to solve problems By way of illustration, questions from the Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior section may ask you demonstrate this skill by Using the main premises of symbolic interactionism to reason about an observational study of physician-patient interactions Predicting how an individual will react to cognitive dissonance Reasoning about whether a causal explanation is possible when given an example of how somebody s gender or personality predicts his or her behavior Concluding which stage of cognitive development a child is in, according to Piaget s theory, when presented with a description of how a child responds to a conservation problem Determining whether an example, such as when an anorexic teenager restricts eating to satisfy esteem needs, is compatible with the premises of Maslow s hierarchy of needs 2015 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 4

Drawing a conclusion about which sociological theory would be most consistent with a conceptual diagram that explains how social and environmental factors influence health Identifying the relationship between social institutions that is suggested by an illustration used in a public health campaign For more context, let s consider three Skill 2 questions linked to different foundational concepts in the Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior section; the Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems section; and the Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems section. SKILL 2 EXAMPLE FROM THE PSYCHOLOGICAL, SOCIAL, AND BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR The concept of cultural capital predicts that: A. cultural distinctions associated with the young will be more valued within a society. B. with improved communication, there will eventually be a convergence of cultural practices of all classes. C. cultural distinctions by class will become less important during a recession because people will have less money to spend. D. cultural distinctions associated with elite classes will be more valued within a society. The correct answer is D. It is a Skill 2 question and assesses knowledge of Content Category 10A, Social inequality. It is a Skill 2 question because it requires you to make a prediction based on a particular concept. This question requires you to understand the concept of cultural capital in order to evaluate which prediction about social stratification would be most consistent with the concept. SKILL 2 EXAMPLE FROM THE BIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL FOUNDATIONS OF LIVING SYSTEMS Starting with the translation initiation codon, the following sequence encodes a polypeptide of how many amino acids? A. 2 B. 3 C. 6 D. 8 5'-CUGCCAAUGUGCUAAUCGCGGGGG-3' 2015 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 5

The correct answer is A. This is a Skill 2 question, and you must use knowledge from Content Category 1B, Transmission of genetic information from the gene to the protein, to solve this problem. In addition to recalling the sequence for the start codon, this is a Skill 2 question because it requires you to apply the scientific principle of the genetic code to the provided RNA sequence. As a Skill 2 question, reasoning about the role of the stop codon in translation will allow you to arrive at the conclusion that this polypeptide has two amino acids. SKILL 2 EXAMPLE FROM THE CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS The radius of the aorta is about 1.0 cm and blood passes through it at a velocity of 30 cm/s. A typical capillary has a radius of about 4 10 4 cm with blood passing through at a velocity of 5 10 2 cm/s. Using this data, what is the approximate number of capillaries in a human body? A. 1 10 4 B. 2 10 7 C. 4 10 9 D. 7 10 12 The correct answer is C. This Skill 2 question relates to Content Category 4B, Importance of fluids for the circulation of blood, gas movement, and gas exchange. This question asks you to use a mathematical model to make predictions about natural phenomena. To answer this question, you must be able to recognize the principles of flow characteristics of blood in the human body and apply the appropriate mathematical model to an unfamiliar scenario. Answering this question first requires recognition that the volume of blood flowing through the aorta is the same volume of blood flowing through the capillaries. It is a Skill 2 question because you then need to use reasoning skills to find the difference in the volumes that the aorta and capillaries can each carry in order to calculate the total number of capillaries. Skill 3: Reasoning about the Design and Execution of Research Questions that test reasoning about the design and execution of research will ask you to demonstrate your scientific inquiry skills by showing that you can do science. They will ask you to demonstrate your understanding of important components of scientific methodology. These questions will ask you to demonstrate your knowledge of the ways in which natural, behavioral, and social scientists conduct research to test and extend scientific knowledge. As you work on these questions, you may be asked to show how scientists use theory, past research findings, and observations to ask testable questions and pose hypotheses. Questions that test this skill may ask you to reason about the ways in which scientists gather data from samples of members of the population about which they would like to draw inferences. They may ask you to identify how scientists manipulate and control variables to test their hypotheses. Questions may ask you to reason about the ways scientists take measurements and record results. These questions may ask you to recognize faulty research logic or point out the limitations of the research studies that are described. Or they may ask you to identify factors that might confuse the inferences you can draw from the results. 2015 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 6

These questions may also ask you to demonstrate and use your understanding of the ways scientists adhere to ethical guidelines to protect the rights of research participants, the integrity of their work, and the interests of research consumers. Questions that test this skill will ask you to use your knowledge of important components of scientific methodology by, for example, Identifying the role of theory, past findings, and observations in scientific questioning Identifying testable research questions and hypotheses Distinguishing between samples and populations and between results that do and do not support generalizations about populations Identifying the relationships among the variables in a study (e.g., independent versus dependent variables; control and confounding variables) Reasoning about the appropriateness, precision, and accuracy of tools used to conduct research in the natural sciences Reasoning about the appropriateness, reliability, and validity of tools used to conduct research in the behavioral and social sciences Reasoning about the features of research studies that suggest associations between variables or causal relationships between them (e.g., temporality, random assignment) Reasoning about ethical issues in scientific research Questions from the Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior section may ask you to reason about the design and execution of research by, for example, Identifying the basic components of survey methods, ethnographic methods, experimental methods, or other types of research designs in psychology and sociology Selecting a hypothesis about semantic activation Identifying the extent to which a finding can be generalized to the population when given details about how participants were recruited for an experiment in language development Identifying the experimental setup in which researchers manipulate self-confidence Identifying the most appropriate way of assessing prejudice in a study on implicit bias Reasoning about the implications of relying on self-report measures for a specific study Identifying the third variable that may be confounding the findings from a correlational study Making judgments about the reliability and validity of specific measures when given information about the response patterns of participants Identifying whether researchers violated any ethical codes when given information about a study 2015 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 7

The three sample questions that follow illustrate Skill 3 questions from, respectively, the Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior section; the Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems section; and the Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems section of the MCAT exam. SKILL 3 EXAMPLE FROM THE PSYCHOLOGICAL, SOCIAL, AND BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR Researchers conducted an experiment to test social loafing. They asked participants to prepare an annual report or a tax return. Some participants performed the task individually and others performed it as a group. What are the independent and dependent variables? A. The independent variable is the overall productivity of the group, and the dependent variable is each participant s contribution to the task. B. The independent variable is the type of task, and the dependent variable is whether the participants worked alone or in a group. C. The independent variable is whether the participant worked alone or in a group, and the dependent variable is each participant s contribution to the task. D. The independent variable is whether the participant worked alone or in a group, and the dependent variable is the type of the task. The correct answer is C. This Skill 3 question assesses knowledge of Content Category 7B, Social processes that influence human behavior. This question is a Skill 3 question because it requires you to reason about research design. This question requires you to understand social loafing and draw inferences about the dependent and independent variables based on this concept and the description of the experimental design. SKILL 3 EXAMPLE FROM THE BIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL FOUNDATIONS OF LIVING SYSTEMS Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) contains a 12-carbon tail attached to a sulfate group and is used in denaturing gel electrophoresis of proteins. Numerous SDS molecules will bind to the exposed hydrophobic regions of denatured proteins. The use of SDS in this experiment allows for the separation of proteins by: A. charge. B. molecular weight. C. shape. D. solubility. 2015 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 8

The correct answer is B. This is a Skill 3 question and requires knowledge from Content Category 1A, Structure and function of proteins and their constituent amino acids. It is a Skill 3 question because it requires you to understand the design of a denaturing gel electrophoresis experiment and the role that SDS plays in this technique. Based on this understanding, you will be able to determine that proteins will be separated only by molecular weight. SKILL 3 EXAMPLE FROM THE CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS A test for proteins in urine involves precipitation but is often complicated by precipitation of calcium phosphate. Which procedure prevents precipitation of the salt? A. Addition of buffer to maintain high ph B. Addition of buffer to maintain neutral ph C. Addition of calcium hydroxide D. Addition of sodium phosphate The correct answer is B. This is a Skill 3 question and relates to Content Category 5B, Nature of molecules and intermolecular interactions. In this Skill 3 question, you must identify a change in an experimental approach that would eliminate a frequently encountered complication. The complication in this case is related to the test for protein-involving precipitation. The test will give a false positive if calcium phosphate precipitates. To answer this Skill 3 question, you need to reason about how changing experimental parameters will eliminate the complication. Skill 4: Data-based and Statistical Reasoning Like questions about the third skill, questions that test the fourth skill will ask you to show that you can do science, this time by demonstrating your data-based and statistical reasoning skills. Questions that test this skill will ask you to reason with data. They will ask you to read and interpret results using tables, graphs, and charts. These questions will ask you to demonstrate that you can identify patterns in data and draw conclusions from evidence. Questions that test this skill may ask you to demonstrate your knowledge of the ways natural, behavioral and social scientists use measures of central tendency and dispersion to describe their data. These questions may ask you to demonstrate your understanding of the ways scientists think about random and systematic errors in their experiments and datasets. They may also ask you to demonstrate your understanding of how scientists think about uncertainty and the implications of uncertainty for statistical testing and the inferences they can draw from their data. These questions may ask you to show how scientists use data to make comparisons between variables or explain relationships between them or make predictions. They may ask you to use data to answer research questions or draw conclusions. 2015 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 9

These questions may ask you to demonstrate your knowledge of the ways scientists draw inferences from their results about associations between variables or causal relationships between them. Questions that test this skill may ask you to examine evidence from a scientific study and point out statements that go beyond the evidence. Or they may ask you to suggest alternative explanations for the same data. Questions that test this skill will ask you to use your knowledge of data-based and statistical reasoning by, for example, Using, analyzing, and interpreting data in figures, graphs, and tables Evaluating whether representations make sense for particular scientific observations and data Using measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode) and measures of dispersion (range, inter-quartile range, and standard deviation) to describe data Reasoning about random and systematic error Reasoning about statistical significance and uncertainty (e.g., interpreting statistical significance levels, interpreting a confidence interval) Using data to explain relationships between variables or make predictions Using data to answer research questions and draw conclusions Identifying conclusions that are supported by research results Determining the implications of results for real-world situations Questions from the Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior section may ask you to demonstrate your use of data-based and statistical reasoning by, for example, Identifying the correlation between a demographic variable, such as race/ethnicity, gender, or age, with life expectancy or another health outcome Identifying the relationship between demographic variables and health variables reported in a table or figure Explaining why income data are usually reported using the median rather than the mean Reasoning about what inference is supported by a table of correlations between different socioeconomic variables and level of participation in different physical activities Reasoning about the type of comparisons made in an experimental study of cognitive dissonance and what the findings imply for attitude and behavior change Drawing conclusions about the type of memory affected by an experimental manipulation when you are shown a graph of findings from a memory experiment Distinguishing the kinds of claims that can be made when using longitudinal data, cross-sectional data, or experimental data in studies of social interaction Identifying which conclusion about mathematical understanding in young children is supported by time data reported in a developmental study 2015 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 10

Evaluating data collected from different types of research studies, such as comparing results from a qualitative study of mechanisms for coping with stress with results from a quantitative study of social support networks Using data, such as interviews with cancer patients or a national survey of health behaviors, to determine a practical application based on a study s results The three questions that follow illustrate Skill 4 questions from, respectively, the Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior section; the Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems section; and the Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems section of the MCAT exam. SKILL 4 EXAMPLE FROM THE PSYCHOLOGICAL, SOCIAL, AND BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR Which correlation supports the bystander effect? A. The number of bystanders is positively correlated with the time it takes for someone to offer help in the case of an emergency. B. The number of bystanders is negatively correlated with the time it takes for someone to offer help in the case of an emergency. C. The number of bystanders is positively correlated with whether people judge a situation to be an emergency. D. The number of bystanders is negatively correlated with whether people judge a situation to be an emergency. The correct answer is A. This Skill 4 question assesses knowledge of Content Category 7B, Social processes that influence human behavior. It is a Skill 4 question because it requires you to engage in statistical reasoning. This question requires you to understand the distinction between negative and positive correlations and make a prediction about data based on your knowledge of the bystander effect. SKILL 4 EXAMPLE FROM THE BIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL FOUNDATIONS OF LIVING SYSTEMS In the figure, the three curves represent hemoglobin oxygen binding at three different ph values, ph 7.2, ph 7.4, and ph 7.6. 2015 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 11

What conclusion can be drawn from these data about the oxygen binding of hemoglobin at different ph values? A. Low ph favors the high affinity oxygen binding state. B. Low ph favors the low affinity oxygen binding state. C. Oxygen affinity is independent of ph. D. Oxygen binding is non-cooperative at low ph. The correct answer is B. This Skill 4 question draws on knowledge from Content Category 1A, Structure and function of proteins and their constituent amino acids. This is a Skill 4 question because it asks you to use data to explain a property of hemoglobin. You must evaluate the hemoglobin oxygen binding data for each ph value and compare them to determine the relationship between ph and hemoglobin oxygen affinity in order to conclude that low ph favors the low affinity oxygen binding state. SKILL 4 EXAMPLE FROM THE CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS Four different solutions of a single amino acid were titrated, and the pk values of the solute were determined. 2015 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 12

Solution pk1 pk2 pk3 1 2.10 3.86 9.82 2 2.10 4.07 9.47 3 2.32 9.76 Not Applicable 4 2.18 9.04 12.48 Which solution contains an amino acid that would be most likely to stabilize an anionic substrate in an enzyme pocket at physiological ph? A. Solution 1 B. Solution 2 C. Solution 3 D. Solution 4 The correct answer is D. This Skill 4 question includes a table and assesses knowledge of Content Category 5D, Structure, function, and reactivity of biologically-relevant molecules. Here you see that four different solutions of a single amino acid were titrated, and the pk values were determined. These values are found in the table. This is a Skill 4 question because you must recognize a data pattern in the table, make comparisons, and use those comparisons to make a prediction. Using knowledge of amino acids and peptide bonds and the patterns you see in the data, you can determine that the N- and C- terminus pk values, roughly 2 and 9 for all solutions, can be ignored since these groups will be involved in peptide bond formation. With further analyses, you can determine that only Solution 4 will be cationic at physiological ph. 2015 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 13