Book Reviews Child Development: Theories and Critical Perspectives (2nd ed.). Rosalyn H. Shute & Phillip T. Slee. London, UK: Routledge. 2015. 298 pp. ISBN 9781848724525. $64.99. Paperback. Child Development: Theories and Critical Perspectives (2015) is the second edition of the 2003 child development textbook by Rosalyn Shute and Philip Slee. Similar to the earlier edition, the new edition presents a very thoughtful and insightful overview of the various psychological theories that describe child and adolescent development. The authors describe the mainstream, classical theories such as those of Sigmund Freud and Jean Piaget that also have a major place in other textbooks, and they cover relevant, lesser-known theories and more recent perspectives. Throughout the book, positivist and postmodern approaches to research are contrasted, as well as the different philosophical traditions that have shaped them. Furthermore, explicit attention is given to the multiple historical and contextual influences that have an impact on any theorist s work. This second edition has been extensively updated, revised, and expanded with the latest critical postmodern thinking, and it now includes a new chapter on children s voices : contemporary thoughts around children s participation in research, policy and practice. In addition to the coverage of different theoretical frameworks and theories of child and adolescent development, explicit attention is given to the link between theory and practice. This seems relevant, as the primary target audience of the book is students taking advanced courses in developmental psychology, education, social work, and social policy. Structure Many central questions concerning child development have philosophical roots, and many theories on child development as well. Therefore, it seems logical that the authors structured their descriptions of the various psychological theories around three philosophical worldviews: (a) organicism, (b) mechanism, and (c) contextualism. Organicism is the perspective in which the universe is viewed as an organic whole. Mechanism is based on the image of a machine and its parts. Contextualism is founded on the idea of a historical event in its context. These three philosophical orientations, or root metaphors, are defined by Pepper (1942) in his taxonomy of philosophical orientations. Root metaphors are similar to ontological assumptions about the nature of the world or being. Pepper s model provides a useful tool, as it can help readers grasp the assumptions of developmental theories and recognize similarities among different theories. In addition to the more traditional schools of thought, the authors pay attention to ideas about postmodern perspectives on children, which were developed by thinkers such as Foucault and Habermas, and which have inspired psychological theorizing on children s development in more recent decades. In the postmodern point of view, there is no absolute knowledge. Instead, knowledge is something that is constructed rather than discovered. Consequently, developmental theorists in these traditions tend to 304 Journal of Family Theory & Review 10 (March 2018): 304 312 DOI:10.1111/jftr.12251
Book Reviews 305 question a universal understanding of children and childhood. Content Overview Before describing the more specific theories that have been developed, the authors first discuss different theoretical orientations to or perspectives on child development. Chapter 1 gives an overview of factors that have shaped views on children and children s development, including historical, cultural, and philosophical influences. The chapter introduces Pepper s taxonomy of root metaphors. A helpful image illustrates how the various developmental theories in psychology can be linked to the different schools of psychology and broader philosophical schools of thought. In the following chapters, the authors give a detailed description of the many theories that were developed to describe and explain child development. Considering that fields of biology and medicine have influenced psychology since the early roots of the discipline, and that in recent decades, several new technologies have been developed to study genes and the brain, it is reasonable and logical that the authors start Chapter 2 with describing theories with biological influences. Also, the special attention to evolutionary developmental psychology and epigenetics seems warranted, given the increased interest that this approach has gained over the past decades (Buss, 1995; Ellis & Bjorklund, 2012). Being heavily influenced by the biological perspective, the organismic tradition is central to Chapter 3. Theories associated with organicism focus on the universal features of human development, which is generally viewed as a dynamic interaction between genetically based maturation and the environment. Another important feature of this tradition is the so-called epigenetic principle (Lerner, 1983), which stresses that in different stages of development there emerges something new that cannot be reduced to the older elements. A prominent research group in the organismic school of thought was the Gestalt psychologists, who focused on the study of perception and emphasized that the whole of anything was greater than its parts. Linked to the organismic tradition is also the perspective of constructivism, which mainly focuses on mental processes and the development of ideas or cognitions. In this perspective (the focus of Chapter 4), it is assumed that reality can be revealed only through the process of construing. The child is viewed as an active constructor of experiences, in interaction with his or her environment. Children learn new ideas or concepts on the basis of their current and past knowledge of the external world. One of the most significant theories in this tradition is Piaget s theory of cognitive development. Chapter 5 is dedicated to work by Sigmund Freud and its effect on developmental theory. Although there is little scientific evidence in support of Freudian theory, Freud s ideas have affected developmental psychology in many ways, including its focus on unconscious processes and the idea that early experiences play a major role in the development of children and that they continue to have an influence throughout life. Furthermore, the influence of Freud s work cannot be neglected, considering its impact on later development of theories, most notably Erikson s (1963) psychosocial theory of human development and Bowlby s (1975) attachment theory. Chapter 6 focuses on developmental theories that are based on the mechanistic conception of the human being: theories in which learning and instruction play a major role. The behaviorist approach is central to this chapter. In this perspective, processes of learning are identified in terms of a relationship between, on the one hand, stimuli, and, on the other hand, responses. Authors describe the work of several influential behaviorists, such as Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner. Whereas organicists viewed the child as actively involved in his or her development, mechanists assume that the child is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli. In Chapter 6, information-processing and social cognitive theories are presented, theories that have their roots in both the mechanistic and the organicism traditions and that deal with the influence of thinking about experiences of behavior. Vygotsky s theoretical writings on cognitive development and education can be placed in the organicist tradition, and they are central to Chapter 7. Vygotsky, a Soviet psychologist, died at a young age, with many of his manuscripts unpublished after being long suppressed by the Soviet regime. Nevertheless, his work had a great influence, in his own country and in the West. As in many other undergraduate
306 Journal of Family Theory & Review textbooks, elements of Vygotsky s theory are contrasted with those from Piaget s work on cognitive development. Whereas in Piaget s view cognitive growth occurs mainly as a result from the child s own actions, Vygotsky emphasizes that the child develops through social and language interactions with older and more experienced people. For this reason, Vygotsky s theoretical framework is sometimes viewed as originating from a dialectical tradition (Chaiklin, 2012). Nevertheless, there are many similarities between Piaget s and Vygotsky s theories that are often neglected (see, e.g., Tudge & Winterhoff, 1993). It is an advantage of this book that the authors pay attention to this point when comparing the two theories, which provides readers with a more nuanced picture. With its emphasis on the social nature of child s development, Vygotsky s work sets the stage for Chapter 8, in which theories are discussed that have their roots in the contextualist tradition. Whereas during a great part of the 20th century, theorists generally had an individualistic view on the developing child. At the end of the 20th century, there was a move toward a greater consideration of the role of social, cultural, and historical contexts, with Bronfenbrenner s ecological theory as the most prominent example. In this chapter, attention is also given to the life course perspective. The basic tenet of this is that development is not finished when people reach adulthood but continues throughout the life span. Life-span psychologists view the individual as an active participant in his or her development but acknowledge the importance of the sociocultural and historical context, for example the norms and values that exist in a society. There is special attention paid in this chapter to the conceptualization of a relatively new life phase called emerging adulthood, which is defined as the period of life from about age 18 through age 25. This phase has been proposed in response to recent changes in the timing of demographic life events such as marriage and childbearing. In the past decades, acknowledgment increased that traditional theories had neglected influences of history, culture, and politics on child development. This has given rise to the question regarding the external validity of (Western) psychological theorizing. Chapter 9 reflects on the current debate on this important issue and how the discussion has affected theory development. Besides ecological perspectives, in which culture is seen as important as it provides a context for development perspectives of cultural psychology have been developed that focus on cultural practices themselves. More recently, there have been efforts to move from a universal psychology toward a psychology of Indigenous people and their cultural realities. Examples from Maori and Philippine models of development are used to illustrate this emerging new field of Indigenous psychology. Chapter 10 focuses on general systems theory: a family of theories that have in common their focus on interactions between individual elements as part of a larger system. This perspective is shared by a range of more specific theories that focus on the development of children: it is assumed that to understand the development and well-being of children, it is important to take into account the world around them, including the family system. The applied field of family therapy, for example, is based on systems theoretical principles, as it concentrates on mutual influences between family members rather than on factors within the individual to understand and address psychological problems. In Chapter 10, the authors discuss the critical state theory, a potentially promising and relatively new avenue for research on child development. It is based on an alternative mode of thinking with a focus on complexity and plasticity instead of linear, cause effect models. Feminist perspectives on research are described in Chapter 11. Because the scope of this chapter is rather broad, however, it remains relatively unclear how feminist perspectives may have influenced child development theory, research, and practice. Besides describing some common themes, including power relations and gender development, the authors discuss differences in the viewpoints of various feminist traditions. The chapter includes one author s personal note in which she describes her experiences with gender bias and gender discrimination in the workplace, which might be particularly insightful for young people today who are unaware of the significant societal changes that have taken place in many Western societies over the past half century. Chapter 12 is new to this second edition and covers children s voices, a concept that is related to the new social studies of childhood and that incorporates children s perspectives and representation into research, policy, and practice. Authors in this interdisciplinary
Book Reviews 307 field of childhood studies, who have their roots in developmental psychology as well as sociology, criticize earlier approaches for viewing children merely as objects, as the passive recipients of environmental influence. Instead, childhood is considered an important period in its own right, and children should be perceived as subjects with their own views and opinions, with the competency to speak for themselves and the right to be heard. Furthermore, this perspective uses different methodologies to better capture children s perspective, for example, novel methods such as photovoice. Also, children might play a more active role in research, such as by including them in the planning of or participation in research projects; for example, they could be given the opportunity to collect data or interview each other. Although this field is not without its critics, as incorporating children into studies might introduce some important (ethical) problems, it has challenged more traditional ways of thinking about childhood and has generally raised awareness of the need for children s involvement in the research process. Over the past 20 30 years, the field has attempted several times to move beyond its traditional fragmentation to a more integrated theoretical picture. While the previous chapters presented the many theoretical frameworks and theories that have been developed in the past, Chapter 13 reviews some more integrative and holistic approaches to child development. The authors present several examples of such endeavors, including life-span psychology, dynamic systems theory, and some transactional and biopsychosocial approaches, which take into account reciprocal interactions between biological factors and social contexts. An integrated approach has some obvious advantages, especially for practitioners, as it might provide a more complete explanation of development. However, such an approach has some potential dangers and disadvantages, to which the authors could have paid more attention. For example, theory integration might be extremely difficult for theories with different (and conflicting) assumptions about human development. Also, the complexity of integrated theories might make it difficult to test them. The final chapter, Chapter 14, discusses the gap between theory and practice, as Western universities traditionally the producers of scientific knowledge have generally paid more attention to theory development and testing than to the application of the knowledge to policy and practice. I agree with the authors that the transference of knowledge to practice represents an important challenge for researchers today and in the near future. Strengths and Areas for Improvement This book has many strengths, of which I highlight only a few here. First, it gives a comprehensive, lively overview of the classical theories included in almost every textbook on child psychology. It also accurately reflects more recent developments in theory, research, and practice, such as the tendency to focus on developmental processes in general instead of specific areas of development, the tendency toward theoretical integration, efforts to incorporate children s perspectives, and the impact of technology on the developing child. Therefore, the book is suitable for aspiring as well as experienced academics and professionals working with children, and it is a very good choice for use in (graduate) introductory child development courses. The book is also relevant for family scholars, as in many developmental theoretical approaches the family is viewed as a primary focus for understanding human behavior. For example, several theorists, including Maccoby and Vygotsky, highlighted the importance of interactions with parents for children s cognitive development. Furthermore, many new approaches emphasize the bidirectional nature of the relationship between child development and family functioning. The role of the family has been most explicitly conceptualized in the systems theoretical approaches, which include Bronfenbrenner s ecological systems theory and various schools of family therapy. A further strength of the book is that theories are not discussed in isolation; instead, there is explicit focus on how individual theories are related: whether or not they build on each other, whether they share the same assumptions, and so on. Such a discussion is essential for a more detailed and critical analysis and reflection. What I also appreciated very much is that the various theories are placed in the cultural, philosophical, historical, and political context in which they were developed. For example, when describing Vygotsky s theory, the authors touch on the potential connections between aspects
308 Journal of Family Theory & Review of his work and Marxist ideology. On a more abstract level, theories are explicitly linked to the views of children that were current when or where they were created. Regarding the latter, it is observed that mainstream Western theories tend to focus on individual development, whereas theoretical ideas developed in other cultures place more emphasis on collective functioning. This is a great strength of the book, as it might contribute to a deeper understanding of the theories. There is ample room for contemporary debates and controversies. For example, the authors discuss how the pervasiveness and wide acceptance of the medical perspective in the West affects the way children s behavior is viewed and the potential dangers that are associated with it. In particular, concerns are raised over the tendency to view, diagnose, and treat children s behavioral and emotional problems in terms of medical conditions and to neglect possible environmental conditions and causes. Such practice may increase the risk of overdiagnosis and overmedication, as seems to be the case with attention deficit disorder. There are not many weaknesses to the book. What I did miss, though, was a concluding chapter that might have refocused theories, perspectives, and priorities as well as a discussion of directions for the future. Another minor critical point is that I noticed that in the early chapters, there were relatively many references to later chapters, which might be especially difficult for readers who have no background in psychology. References Bowlby, J. (1975). Separation. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin. Buss, D. M. (1995). Evolutionary psychology: A new paradigm for psychological science. Psychological Inquiry, 6, 1 30. https://doi.org/10.1207/ s15327965pli0601_1 Chaiklin, S. (2012). Dialectics, politics and contemporary cultural-historical research, exemplified through Marx and Vygotsky. In H. Daniels (Ed.), Vygotsky and sociology (pp. 24 43). New York, NY: Routledge. Ellis, B. J., & Bjorklund, D. F. (2012). Beyond mental health: An evolutionary analyses of development under risky and supportive environmental conditions: Introduction to Special Section. Developmental Psychology, 48, 591 597. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/a0027651 Erikson, E. (1963). Childhood and society. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin. Lerner, R. M. (1983). Concepts and theories of human development. New York, NY: Random House. Pepper, S. (1942). World hypotheses: A study of evidence. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Tudge, J. R. H., & Winterhoff, P. A. (1993). Vygotsky, Piaget, and Bandura: Perspectives on the relations between the social world and cognitive development. Human Development, 36, 61 81. https://doi.org/10.1159/000277297 Freek Bucx The Netherlands Institute for Social Research Concluding Comments In conclusion, I enjoyed reading this book. Abstract and complex ideas are described in a clear and uncomplicated style, which makes it a very readable book that is detailed but not burdensome. I particularly liked the short stories, anecdotes, and poems, which clarified some of the more abstract ideas and issues. I wholeheartedly recommend this scholarly book to anyone who wants to have a comprehensive overview and critical discussion of the main theories that have been developed and an accurate picture of contemporary debates in child and adolescent psychology. As such, the book is a very good choice for a (graduate) introductory child development course.