1 An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology PowerPoint Lecture Presentations prepared by Jason LaPres Lone Star College North Harris
An Introduction to Studying the Human Body Classification of Living Things Humans and many other animals are vertebrates Characterized by a segmented vertebral column Common characteristics suggest the same path in evolution Homeostasis The goal of physiological regulation and the key to survival in a changing environment
1-1 Anatomy and Physiology Directly Affect Your Life Anatomy Is the oldest medical science 1600 B.C. Physiology Is the study of function Biochemistry Biology Chemistry Genetics
1-2 Good Study Strategies Crucial for Success Study Strategies Attend all lectures, labs, and study sessions Read your lecture and laboratory assignments before going to class or lab Devote a block of time each day to your A&P course Set up a study schedule and stick to it Do not procrastinate Approach the information in different ways Develop the skill of memorization, and practice it regularly As soon as you experience difficulty with the course, seek assistance
1-2 Good Study Strategies Crucial for Success Important Features of the Textbook Learning Outcomes Illustrations, Tables, and Photos End-of-Chapter Study and Review Materials Systems Integrators Pronunciation Guides Colored Tabs Checkpoint Questions End-of-Book Reference Sections Tips & Tricks Clinical Notes Arrow Icons
1-3 Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy Describes the structures of the body What they are made of Where they are located Associated structures Physiology Is the study of: Functions of anatomical structures Individual and cooperative functions
1-4 Relationships between Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy, examines large, visible structures Surface anatomy: exterior features Regional anatomy: body areas Systemic anatomy: organ systems Developmental anatomy: from conception to death Clinical anatomy: medical specialties
1-4 Relationships between Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy Microscopic anatomy examines cells and molecules Cytology: study of cells and their structures cyt- = cell Histology: study of tissues and their structures
1-4 Relationships between Anatomy and Physiology Physiology Cell physiology: processes within and between cells Organ physiology: functions of specific organs Systemic physiology: functions of an organ system Pathological physiology: effects of diseases
1-5 Levels of Organization The Chemical (or Molecular) Level Atoms are the smallest chemical units Molecules are a group of atoms working together The Cellular Level Cells are a group of atoms, molecules, and organelles working together The Tissue Level A tissue is a group of similar cells working together The Organ Level An organ is a group of different tissues working together
1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ System Level An organ system is a group of organs working together Humans have 11 organ systems The Organism Level A human is an organism
Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization Cellular Level Chemical and Molecular Levels Heart muscle cell Protein filaments Complex protein molecule Atoms in combination
Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization Organ Level Tissue Level Cardiac muscle tissue The heart The cardiovascular system Organ system level Organism level
1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Integumentary Major Organs Skin Hair Sweat glands Nails Functions Protects against environmental hazards Helps regulate body temperature Provides sensory information
1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Skeletal Major Organs Bones Cartilages Associated ligaments Bone marrow Functions Provides support and protection for other tissues Stores calcium and other minerals Forms blood cells
1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Muscular Major Organs Skeletal muscles and associated tendons Functions Provides movement Provides protection and support for other tissues Generates heat that maintains body temperature
1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Nervous Major Organs Brain Spinal cord Peripheral nerves Sense organs Functions Directs immediate responses to stimuli Coordinates or moderates activities of other organ systems Provides and interprets sensory information about external conditions
1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Endocrine Major Organs Pituitary gland Thyroid gland Pancreas Adrenal glands Gonads Endocrine tissues in other systems Functions Directs long-term changes in the activities of other organ systems Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body Controls many structural and functional changes during development
1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Cardiovascular Major Organs Heart Blood Blood vessels Functions Distributes blood cells, water and dissolved materials including nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide Distributes heat and assists in control of body temperature
1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Lymphatic Major Organs Spleen Thymus Lymphatic vessels Lymph nodes Tonsils Functions Defends against infection and disease Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream
1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Respiratory Major Organs Nasal cavities Sinuses Larynx Trachea Bronchi Lungs Alveoli
1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Respiratory Functions Delivers air to alveoli (sites in lungs where gas exchange occurs) Provides oxygen to bloodstream Removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream Produces sounds for communication
1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Digestive Major Organs Teeth Tongue Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Liver Gallbladder Pancreas
1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Digestive Functions Processes and digests food Absorbs and conserves water Absorbs nutrients Stores energy reserves
1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Urinary Major Organs Kidneys Ureters Urinary bladder Urethra Functions Excretes waste products from the blood Controls water balance by regulating volume of urine produced Stores urine prior to voluntary elimination Regulates blood ion concentrations and ph
1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Male Reproductive Major Organs Testes Epididymides Ductus deferentia Seminal vesicles Prostate gland Penis Scrotum
1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Male Reproductive Functions Produces male sex cells (sperm), suspending fluids, and hormones Sexual intercourse
1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Female Reproductive Major Organs Ovaries Uterine tubes Uterus Vagina Labia Clitoris Mammary glands
1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Female Reproductive Functions Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and hormones Supports developing embryo from conception to delivery Provides milk to nourish newborn infant Sexual intercourse
1-6 Homeostasis Homeostasis All body systems working together to maintain a stable internal environment Systems respond to external and internal changes to function within a normal range (body temperature, fluid balance)
1-6 Homeostasis Mechanisms of Regulation Autoregulation (intrinsic) Automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to some environmental change Extrinsic regulation Responses controlled by nervous and endocrine systems
1-6 Homeostasis Receptor Receives the stimulus Control center Processes the signal and sends instructions Effector Carries out instructions
1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback The Role of Negative Feedback The response of the effector negates the stimulus Body is brought back into homeostasis Normal range is achieved
Figure 1-2 The Control of Room Temperature RECEPTOR Normal condition disturbed Thermometer Information affects STIMULUS: Room temperature rises Normal room temperature RESPONSE: Room temperature drops Normal condition restored EFFECTOR Air conditioner turns on 20 30 40 Sends commands to In response to input from a receptor (a thermometer), a thermostat (the control center) triggers an effector response (either an air conditioner or a heater) that restores normal temperature. In this case, when room temperature rises above the set point, the thermostat turns on the air conditioner, and the temperature returns to normal. Room temperature ( C) CONTROL CENTER (Thermostat) HOMEOSTASIS Air Air conditioner conditioner turns on turns off 22 Normal range Time With this regulatory system, room temperature fluctuates around the set point.
Figure 1-3 Negative Feedback in the Control of Body Temperature RECEPTORS Temperature sensors in skin and hypothalamus Normal temperature disturbed Information affects CONTROL CENTER STIMULUS: Body temperature rises HOMEOSTASIS Normal body temperature RESPONSE: Increased heat loss, body temperature drops Normal temperature restored EFFECTORS Sweat glands in skin increase secretion Blood vessels in skin dilate Sends commands to Events in the regulation of body temperature, which are comparable to those shown in Figure 1 2. A control center in the brain (the hypothalamus) functions as a thermostat with a set point of 37 C. If body temperature exceeds 37.2 C, heat loss is increased through enhanced blood flow to the skin and increased sweating. Body temperature ( C) Thermoregulatory center in brain 37.2 37 36.7 Vessels Vessels dilate, constrict, sweating sweating increases decreases Normal range Time The thermoregulatory center keeps body temperature fluctuating within an acceptable range, usually between 36.7 and 37.2 C.
1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback The Role of Positive Feedback The response of the effector increases change of the stimulus Body is moved away from homeostasis Normal range is lost Used to speed up processes
Figure 1-4 Positive Feedback: Blood Clotting Clotting accelerates Positive feedback loop Chemicals Chemicals Damage to cells in the blood vessel wall releases chemicals that begin the process of blood clotting. The chemicals start chain reactions in which cells, cell fragments, and soluble proteins in the blood begin to form a clot. As clotting continues, each step releases chemicals that further accelerate the process. Blood clot This escalating process is a positive feedback loop that ends with the formation of a blood clot, which patches the vessel wall and stops the bleeding.
1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback Systems Integration Systems work together to maintain homeostasis Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium Opposing forces are in balance Dynamic equilibrium continual adaptation Physiological systems work to restore balance Failure results in disease or death
Table 1-1 The Roles of Organ Systems in Homeostatic Regulation
1-8 Anatomical Terminology Superficial Anatomy Locating structures on or near the body surface Anatomical Landmarks Anatomical position: hands at sides, palms forward Supine: lying down, face up Prone: lying down, face down
1-8 Anatomical Terminology Superficial Anatomy Anatomical Landmarks References to palpable structures Anatomical Regions Body regions Abdominopelvic quadrants Abdominopelvic regions Anatomical Directions Reference terms based on subject
Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks Cranial or skull Cephalic or head Facial or face Oral or mouth Mental or chin Frontal or forehead Nasal or nose Ocular, orbital or eye Otic or ear Buccal or cheek Cervical or neck Thoracic or thorax, chest Axillary or armpit Mammary or breast Brachial or arm Abdominal (abdomen) Umbilical or navel Antecubital or front of elbow Anterior view Trunk
Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks Antebrachial or forearm Pelvic (pelvis) Trunk Carpal or wrist Palmar or palm Manual or hand Pollex Digits or thumb (phalanges) or fingers (digital or phalangeal) Patellar or kneecap Inguinal or groin Pubic (pubis) Femoral or thigh Crural or leg Tarsal or ankle Digits (phalanges) or toes (digital or phalangeal) Hallux or great toe Pedal or foot Anterior view
Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks Cephalic or head Acromial or shoulder Dorsal or back Cervical or neck Olecranal or back of elbow Upper limb Posterior view
Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks Upper limb Lumbar or loin Gluteal or buttock Lower limb Popliteal or back of knee Sural or calf Calcaneal or heel of foot Plantar or sole of foot Posterior view
Figure 1-6a Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ) Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ) Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ) Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ) Abdominopelvic quadrants. The four abdominopelvic quadrants are formed by two perpendicular lines that intersect at the navel. The terms for these quadrants, or their abbreviations, are most often used in clinical discussions.
Figure 1-6b Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions Right hypochondriac region Right lumbar region Right inguinal region Epigastric region Left hypochondriac region Umbilical region Left lumbar region Hypogastric (pubic) region Left inguinal region Abdominopelvic regions. The nine abdominopelvic regions provide more precise regional descriptions.
Figure 1-6c Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions Liver Gallbladder Stomach Spleen Large intestine Small intestine Appendix Urinary bladder Anatomical relationships. The relationship between the abdominopelvic quadrants and regions and the locations of the internal organs are shown here.
Figure 1-7 Directional References Superior Cranial Right Left Proximal Anterior or ventral Posterior or dorsal Lateral Caudal Medial Proximal Distal Inferior A lateral view. Distal An anterior view. Arrows indicate important directional terms used in this text; definitions and descriptions are given in Table 1 2.
Table 1-2 Directional Terms
1-8 Anatomical Terminology Sectional Anatomy Planes and sections Plane: a three-dimensional axis Section: a slice parallel to a plane Used to visualize internal organization and structure Important in radiological techniques MRI PET CT
Figure 1-8 Sectional Planes Frontal plane Sagittal plane Transverse plane
Table 1-3 Terms That Indicate Sectional Planes
1-9 Body Cavities Essential Functions of Body Cavities 1. Protect organs from accidental shocks 2. Permit changes in size and shape of internal organs Ventral body cavity (coelom) Divided by the diaphragm Thoracic cavity Abdominopelvic cavity
Figure 1-9 Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Ventral Body Cavity Ventral Body Cavity Provides protection Allows organ movement Linings prevent friction Subdivides during development into Abdominopelvic Cavity Thoracic Cavity Surrounded by chest wall and diaphragm Peritoneal Cavity Right Pleural Cavity Mediastinum Left Pleural Cavity Surrounds right lung Contains the trachea, esophagus, and major vessels Surrounds left lung Pericardial Cavity Surrounds heart Extends throughout abdominal cavity and into superior portion of pelvic cavity Abdominal Cavity Pelvic Cavity Contains many digestive glands and organs Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, last portion of digestive tract
1-9 Body Cavities Serous Membranes Line body cavities and cover organs Consist of parietal layer and visceral layer Parietal layer lines cavity Visceral layer covers organ
1-9 Body Cavities The Thoracic Cavity Right and left pleural cavities Contain right and left lungs Mediastinum Upper portion filled with blood vessels, trachea, esophagus, and thymus Lower portion contains pericardial cavity The heart is located within the pericardial cavity
Figure 1-10a The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions POSTERIOR ANTERIOR Pleural cavity Thoracic cavity Pericardial cavity Diaphragm Peritoneal cavity Abdominal cavity Pelvic cavity Abdominopelvic cavity
Figure 1-10b The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions Visceral pericardium Heart Pericardial cavity Parietal pericardium Air space Balloon
Figure 1-10c The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions ANTERIOR Pericardial cavity Pleural cavity Parietal pleura Right lung Left lung Mediastinum Spinal cord POSTERIOR
1-9 Body Cavities The Abdominopelvic Cavity Peritoneal cavity: chamber within abdominopelvic cavity Parietal peritoneum: lines the internal body wall Visceral peritoneum: covers the organs
1-9 Body Cavities The Abdominopelvic Cavity Abdominal cavity superior portion Diaphragm to top of pelvic bones Contains digestive organs Retroperitoneal space Area posterior to peritoneum and anterior to muscular body wall Contains pancreas, kidneys, ureters, and parts of the digestive tract
1-9 Body Cavities The Abdominopelvic Cavity Pelvic cavity inferior portion Within pelvic bones Contains reproductive organs, rectum, and bladder