LONG TERM ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT

Transcription

1 LONG TERM ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT diving Compiled by: D. Philippopoulos

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3 Table of Contents Preface Introduction What is LTAD? 5 An Overview of the Stages of the Diving LTAD 7 1. Stage 1 Active Start 2. Stage 2 Flip ʼn Fun Sports Entry 3. Stage 3 Technical Foundations 8 4. Stage 4 Competitive Foundations 5. Stage 5 Consolidation 9 6. Stage 6 Realisation Stage 7 Retirement/Retention Stage 2. Where are we now? 11 A Athletes B Coaches C Officials D Parents E Facilities 3. Where do we want to be? 16 A Athletes B Coaches C Officials D Parents E Facilities 4. How are we going to get there? key Factors influencing LTAD 1. The Ten Year Rule 2. The FUNdamentals Developing Physical Literacy 3. Specialization Chronological Age vs. Developmental Age Trainability Physical, Mental-Cognitive and Emotional development 7. Periodization (Annual Training, Competition and Recovery Plan) Calendar Planning for Competition

4 9. System Alignment and Integration 10. Continuous Improvement (Kaizen) The 10 S's of Training and Performance Stamina (Endurance) Strength Speed Skill Suppleness (Flexibility) Structure Stature 26 (p)sychology Sustenance Schooling Socio-cultural 27 Building a Pathway 28 Long Term Athlete Development Diving Competitive The LTAD Framework 29 Periodisation 33 A Intensity B Volume C Non Sport Stresses D Season Planning 34 Appendix I Dive Progressions For All Dives 35 Appendix II Suggested Dive Skill Chart for Each Specific LTAD Stage 37 Appendix III Suggested Dryland Skills Chart for Each Specific LTAD Stage 40 Appendix IV Periodisation Chart Competitive Foundations 42 Appendix V Physical, Mental/Cognitive and Emotional Development for all the Stages 43 Appendix VI Selected Bibliography 50 25

5 Preface One of the most important periods of motor development for children is between the ages of nine to twelve. During this time children are developmentally ready to acquire general overall sports skills that are the cornerstones of all athletic development Diving is very much an anaerobic and explosive sport and therefore very unlike swimming. It has very different needs and requirements. While we might share the water, this is about the only common aspect between these two aquatic disciplines. These days even the swimwear is different. The ages for competing are also very much younger for diving, similar to gymnastics, thus requiring a lot of attention to child growth and development. Diving most probably shares more common characteristics with gymnastics than any other aquatic discipline. The Long Term Athlete Development Programme is not only about producing top athletes but rather is based on the physical, mental, emotional and cognitive development of children and adolescents. The model is based on stages, each of which reflects a different point in the athlete's development. In essence this model provides an understanding and more importantly an implemental pathway for divers to become 'elite' performers, while on the other hand catering for the development of physical literacy and long time involvement in sport. Its aim is to use sport specific technical knowledge to enable divers to achieve their optimum level of performance. This is not to say that all divers will become an Olympic medal winner but by implementing this programme, diving will grow and there will be a greater chance of talented divers reaching their full potential. However diving is unique in the international arena of the sport there are numerous cases where 'junior' divers have consistently won international medals at Olympic, European and Commonwealth events more so in the platform categories. In the 2003 World Championships the men's platform champion Alexander Despatie from Canada was just 18 years of age with four other men's finalists from four other Countries under the age of 18. This year at the Canadian Grand Prix only.25 of a point separated the winner, Alexandra Despatie, and the 17 year old silver medallist Thomas Fincham from America. Even more recently coming out of Great Britain is the young 15 year old Tomas Daley who won the men's 10 m competition in 2009 at the World Championships held in Rome. How can South African Diving become competitive in the international arena? And/or more importantly how can we keep our talented divers in this country? I ask this question when currently there are three South African Divers who began their diving careers in South Africa but now dive at an international level for other countries, namely: Tandi Gerrard, Great Britain, member of the Great Britain c Olympic Team 2004, Women's Synchronised Diving Event, Monique M Carroll, member of the Great Britain Senior Elite Diving Team, th Platform, Grant Nell, member if the Australian World Junior Team, that participated at the 16 FINA World Junior Diving Championships. This alone indicates that the diving coaches in South Africa are capable of developing divers to a level where they are capable of being selected as members of National teams in other countries. It is now up to South Africa to establish a clear pathway for divers from Learn to Dive right through to winning Olympic medals or on to staying with in the sport as adults. Training regimes, dive progression, diver development both physical and cognitive, and how when and where to train will assist divers and coaches to reach each divers individual potential and through this process allow South Africa to achieve their long term goals of producing Olympic Divers. 3

6 Introduction Scientific research has concluded that it takes eight-to-twelve years of training for a talented player/athlete to reach elite levels. This is called the ten-year or 10,000 hour rule. For athletes, coaches and parents this translates to slightly more than three hours of practice daily for ten years. Unfortunately, parents and coaches in many sports still approach training with an attitude best characterized as "peaking by Friday," where a short-term approach is taken to training and performance with an over-emphasis on immediate results. A specific well-planned training, competition and recovery regime will ensure optimum development throughout an athlete's career. There is no short cut to success in athlete preparation. Rushing competition always results in shortcomings in physical, technical, tactical and mental abilities. This idea/concept is supported by 'The Path to Excellence', which provides a comprehensive view of the development of U.S. Olympians who competed between 1984 and The results reveal that; U.S. Olympians begin their sport participation at the average age of 12.0 for males and 11.5 for females. Most Olympians reported a 12- to 13-year period of talent development from their sport introduction to making an Olympic team. Olympic medallists were younger 1.3 to 3.6 years during the first 5 stages of development than non-medallists, suggesting that medallists were receiving motor skill development and training at an earlier age. However, caution must be taken not to fall into the trap of early specialization in late specialization sports. "It takes 10 years of extensive training to excel in anything" Herbert Simon - Nobel Laureate In light of this information, this proposal will firstly consider the concept of long-term athlete development before attempting to outline a Long-term Athlete Development Programme for South African Diving. The Long Term Athlete Development Model has been developed by Dr. Istvan Balyi and internationally recognised coach, and educator and is based upon a consensus of evidence researched on how young people develop sporting ability. This model links the coaching and development of players to their physical and psychological growth. Hence the Long Term Athlete Development model is a generic, conceptual framework for athlete development in sport. This model is not new, the majority of the research on which it is based is widely accepted, and has been used to underpin physical education teaching for many years. The only difference is that the Long Term Athlete Development Model allows for a better understanding and a mechanism for applying theory to the development of top athletes. The benefits of adopting the principals of LTAD to diving would be: to provide a means of developing an integrated, systematic approach to diver development that will both ensure that all divers are able to achieve their full potential and help foster long term participation in the sport of diving. Ericsson, et al., 1993; Ericsson and Charness, 1994, Bloom, 1985; Salmela et al., 1998 Samela 1998 Balyi and Hamilton, 1999 Balyi, I,

7 1. What is LTAD? The LTAD model is predicated on the idea that each participant's stage of physiological, mental/cognitive, and emotional development must be identified and taken into account when developing his/her optimal training, competition and recovery program. It is inclusive: the principles which underpin the LTAD are equally applicable to people of all ages and abilities whether they are participating in elite sport or recreational physical activity. The model is unique in structure as it looks closely at the developmental age that is the maturation level of an individual rather than chronological age. It is athlete cantered, coach driven, and supported by new innovations in sport science. The idea is that each athlete is unique and that they will each follow their own specific journey through the sport with training programmes and competition programme that consider their biological age and training ages in order to attain their individual potential. This model represents a paradigm shift, a philosophically different approach to sport and physical activity. The remainder of this section is devoted to explaining the model and its potential for enhancing our enjoyment of sport and physical activity. Essentially, children's development occurs within windows of optimum trainability. Development occurs outside these windows, but not to the same potential. So just as children who are not stimulated intellectually at the correct time cannot develop their intellectual ability to their full potential, divers who are not physically stimulated at the correct time in their physical development will not achieve the athletic potential. All children are naturally athletic and given the opportunity they will all achieve physical literacy, it is just as well that we cannot tell who will be elite athletes in the early years of childhood, because it is evident that appropriate physical activity must be provided to all children, weather they are destined for podium or to enjoy a healthy life. One of the goals of the LTAD model is Physical Literacy, as well as full sport system alignment and integration. Physical literacy is defined as the mastery of fundamental movement skills and fundamental sport skills. A physically literate person moves with poise, economy and confidence in a wide variety of physically challenging situations, is perceptive in reading all aspects of the physical environment. He/ she anticipate the movement needs or possibilities, and responds appropriately with intelligence and imagination." (Whitehead, 2001) Diving is considered an early specialisation sport and specialists in the field are aware that children are capable of embracing significant physical challenges at an early age. All coaches are aware that young athletes moving into puberty often find it hard to adjust to the changes that take place with respect to their bodies. For young women they are not as strong as they were before as their increased effects their power to weight ratio significantly. At the same time young men are increasing in strength and are growing rapidly, often more so than the young girls this results in a changing centre of gravity and limb lengths changing often resulting in uncoordinated movements from once such coordinated athletes. In diving LTAD recommends an early recruitment into the sport, more advanced skills at an earlier age, and allows divers a chance to perform even during their rapid growth years. Enjoy the journey, enjoy every moment, and quit worrying about winning and losing Matt Biondi, Olympic swimming champion Based on the Canadian Model by Istav Balyi 5

8 There are a number of key ways in which a diver may improve performance; some of the more important ones to Long-Term Athlete Development are listed below: Optimal Training (including recovery training at all stages) Environment both the training and out of training environment Support services at all levels Proper system integration and alignment Long Term Athlete Development Policy System of Competition System of Coach Education Club and Government Structures Implementation Procedure Diving as with gymnastics is a unique sport because apart from the physical developmental characteristics, a diver has a greater hurdle to overcome, 'FEAR' The LTAD plan for diving takes into account the unique differences between disciplines within the sport; springboard and platform diving as well as maturation differences between males and females. LTAD is about achieving optimal training, competition and recovery throughout the diver's career, particularly in relation to the more important growth and development years of young athletes. The LTAD programme provides guidelines to clubs, coaches, divers, parents and administrators for training, preparation and competition. The programme gives guidance in terms of 'what', and 'who' as well as 'how'. Briefly there are thirteen reasons for the implementation of the Long Term Athlete Development Programme: To establish a clear philosophy and a realistic pathway for the development of the diver and champions for life; Way et al 2005 cited in Long-Term Athlete Development Resource Paper V2 pp 16 modified for South Africa 6

9 To identify gaps in the current diver development pathway; Create sustainable, high quality programmes that respect and address the windows of trainability; To achieve the goals and targets of the individual divers; To guide optimal performance; To provide planning for optimal performance; To provide a planning tool, based on scientific research for coaches and administrators; To increase the quality and quantity of coaches, officials, and administrators through improved education, commitment to innovation, and provision of support and resources; To increase participation levels and the talent pool Create a formal transparent talent identification system; Improve the sports profile with in Swimming South Africa; Achieve and sustain international success; To establish diving as an athlete-centred, coach-driven and administration-and sport science-supported organisation. It is hoped that the diving community will pull together and give all the participants in the programme a chance to understand and achieve their full potential while building the sport and ensuring that athletes are staying in our discipline for life. An Overview of the stages of the Diving LTAD 1. Stage 1 Active Start Age: 0 4 for both boys and girls Objective: Basic movement orientation Physical activity is essential for healthy child development and should be fun and make up between 30 to 60 minutes of the child's organised day. Physical activity has the following benefits: Enhances development of brain function, coordination, social skills, gross motor skills, emotions, leadership, and imagination. Helps children to build confidence and a positive self esteem Helps to build strong bones and muscles, improves flexibility, develops good posture and balance, improves fitness, reduces stress, and improves sleep. Promotes healthy weight Helps children to move skilfully and enjoy being active. 2. Stage 2 Flip ʼn Fun Sports Entry Age: Males 5 7 / Females 5-6 Objective: Basic diving movement orientation in a socialised sporting environment The FUNdamental stage is well structured and fun! The emphasis is on the overall development of the athlete's physical capacities, and fundamental movement skills, and the ABC's of athleticism - Agility, Balance, Coordination and Speed. Participation in as many sports as possible is encouraged. Speed, power and endurance are developed using FUN games. Correct running, jumping and throwing techniques are taught, using the ABC's of athletics. Strength training during this stage should include exercises using the athletes own body weight, medicine ball and Swiss ball exercises. Athletes should be introduced to the simple rules and ethics of sports. 7

10 No periodisation takes place, but all programs are structured and monitored. Activities revolve around the school year, and during summer and winter holiday's multi-sport camps are recommended. If athletes and parents have a preferred sport, participation once or twice per week is recommended, but participation in other sports three or four times per week is essential for future excellence. If the athletes later decide to leave the competitive stream, the skills they have acquired during the Fundamental stage will still benefit them when they engage recreational activities, which will enhance their quality of life and health. Consequently the emphasis should be on developing basic movement skills in a fun way the FUNdamentals: ABCs Agility, Balance, Co-ordination, Speed RJT Running, Jumping, Throwing KGBs Kinaesthetic, Gliding, Buoyancy CPKs Catching, Passing, Kicking, Striking 3. Stage 3 Technical Foundations Age: Males 7 10 / Females 6 9 years Objective: Learn all the basic skill sets for diving Specialized movement skills are developed from age six to age nine, and are specialized sports skills. By passing the fundamental and specialized skill development phase is likely to be detrimental to the child's future engagement in physical activity and sport. Early specialization in late specialization sports can also be detrimental to the proceeding stages of skill development. One of the most important periods of motor development for children is between the ages of six to ten. During this time children are developmentally ready to acquire general overall sports skills that are the cornerstones of all athletic development. This is the 'window of accelerated adaptation to motor coordination'. All fundamental movement skills should be further developed and general overall sports skills should be learned during this phase. If fundamental motor skill training is not developed between the ages of eight to 11 and nine to 12 respectively for females and males, a significant window of opportunity has been lost, compromising the ability of the young player/athlete to reach his/her full potential. Strength should be developed by medicine ball, Swiss ball and own body-weight exercises as well as hopping-bounding exercises (or routines). Endurance should be developed further by games and relays. Basic flexibility exercises should be introduced during this phase, while speed can be developed further with specific activities during the warm-up, such as agility, quickness and change of direction. Competition should be well structured. The most suitable framework is single periodisation for this phase, however for a few sports, sportspecific needs will warrant double periodisation (e.g. swimming, tennis). A 70:30 training/practice to competition-ratio is recommended. 4. Stage 4 Competitive Foundations Age: Males 9-13 / Females 8-12 years Objectives: Applying basic skill sets for dives performed in competition. Expanding skills set and assembling competitive dive list. During the Competitive Foundations stage young athletes consolidate basic sport-specific skills and competition experience. This phase is a 'window of accelerated adaptation to aerobic and strength training.' Optimal aerobic trainability begins with the onset of Peak Height Velocity It must be noted that the ages described above are general guidelines. The individual tempo of development /maturation will influence how athletes will reach the various stages of long-term development. However, they all will go through the same stages. Some early maturing athletes may have as much as a four-year physiological advantage over their late maturing peers. Ross et al

11 (PHV) or the major growth spurt during maturation. Aerobic training should be prioritized after the onset of PHV, while skill, speed and strength should be maintained or developed further. Special emphasis is also required for flexibility training due to the sudden growth of bones, tendons, ligaments and muscles. There are two windows of accelerated adaptation to strength training for females. Window one is immediately after PHV and window two begins with the onset of menarche (the first menstrual period). This window for males begins months after PHV. (refer to later discussion on PHV) It should be noted that both aerobic and strength trainability is dependent on maturation levels, thus early, average or late matures need different timing of the training emphasis. At present most of these decisions are made on chronological age (age groups) and not on individual, maturation level needs. Single, double and occasionally (depending on sport-specific demands) triple periodisation is the optimal framework of preparation during this phase. During competitions athletes dive to win and to do their best, but the major focus of training is on learning the basics as opposed to competing. Training and competition ratios are optimized because too many competitions waste valuable training time and conversely, not enough competition inhibits the practice of technical/tactical skills and learning how to cope with the physical and mental challenges presented during competition. A ratio of 60 percent training to 40 percent competition is recommended by experts during the Competitive Foundations phase and the 40 percent competition ratio includes competition and competition-specific training. However, these percentages vary according to sport and individual specific needs. Athletes undertaking this type of preparation will be better prepared for competition in both the short and long-term, than those who focus solely on winning. During this phase, athletes train in competitive situations daily, in the form of practice matches or competitive games and drills. The Competitive Foundations phase addresses two of the critical or sensitive periods of physical development. Athletes who miss this phase of training will not reach their full potential, as these critical periods have been missed. The reason why so many athletes plateau during the later stage of their careers is primarily because of an over emphasis on competition instead of on training during this important period in their athletic development. The Learn to Train and Training to Train stages are the most important phases of athletic preparation. During these stages 'we make or break an athlete!' LTAD requires the identification of early, average, and late maturers in order to help to design appropriate training and competition programs in relation to optimal trainability and readiness. The beginning of the growth spurt and the peak of the growth spurt are very significant in LTAD applications to training and competition design. 5. Stage 5 - Consolidation Age: Males / Females years Objectives: Consolidation of all experiences and skills for competition purposes This phase of development is introduced after the goals and objectives of the Competitive Foundations stage have been achieved. The training to competition and competition-specific training ratio now changes to 50:50. Fifty percent of available time is devoted to the development of technical and tactical skills and fitness improvements, and fifty percent is devoted to competition and competition-specific training. 9

12 During the Competitive Foundations phase, high intensity individual event and position-specific training is provided to athletes yearround. Athletes, who are now proficient at performing both basic and sport specific skills, learn to perform these skills under a variety of competitive conditions during training. Special emphasis is placed on optimum preparation by modelling training and competition. Fitness programs, recovery programs, psychological preparation and technical development are now individually tailored to a greater degree. This emphasis on individual preparation addresses each athlete's individual strengths and weaknesses. Double and multiple periodisations is the optimal framework of preparation. 6. Stage 6 - Realisation Age: Males 16 years and older / Females 15 years and older Objectives: Maximize fitness preparation and sport, individual and position specific skills as well as performance (maximize engine, skills and performance)/realisation of sports career potential This is the final phase of athletic preparation. The entire athlete's physical, technical, tactical, mental, and personal and lifestyle capacities are now fully established and the focus of training has shifted to the maximization of performance. Athletes are trained to peak for major competitions. Training is characterized by high intensity and relatively high volume. Frequent prophylactic (preventative) breaks help to prevent physical and mental burnouts. Training to competition ratio in this phase is 25:75, with the competition percentage including competition-specific training activities. 7. Stage 7 - The Retirement / Retention Stage Age: Male 18+ / Female 17+ Objectives: Retain athletes for coaching, administration, officials, etc. This phase refers to the activities performed after an athlete has retired from competition permanently. During this final phase, some exathletes move into sport-related careers that may include coaching, officiating, sport administration, small business enterprises, master's competition, media, etc. Success is a journey not a destination. The doing is often more important than the outcome Arthur Ashe, Tennis Champion Acknowledgements Dr Istvan Balyi - Consultant and specialist in Growth, Development and Athlete Preparation and Planning. It must be noted that the ages described above are general guidelines. The individual tempo of development /maturation will influence how athletes will reach the various stages of long-term development. However, they all will go through the same stages. Some early maturing athletes may have as much as a four-year physiological advantage over their late maturing peers. Ross et al

13 2. Where Are We Now? Five Pillars A Athletes South Africa, diving population is very small however numbers tend to indicate that it is neither growing nor decreasing in size. The table below represents the participants at senior nationals 2009 and Table 1: No of participants at Senior and Junior Nationals in 2009 and 2010 An even more concerning issue is that of these 32 divers that participate in 2010, most originated from the Gauteng Region, these figures are reflected below again for both 2009 and Table 2: No of Divers per Province at Senior and Junior Nationals 2009 and

14 B Coaches This is an even more disturbing reality for diving in South Africa. There are currently 12 active coaches in the country. While there are a few retired coaches, and a few young ex divers coaching at a school level, this number is way too low. Region Coach Active Club/School Central Gauteng Imraan Mess Coaching Cursaders/St. Stithians Lina Woodward Coaching Jesters/St. Mary s Gail Pawley Inactive Kingfisher Loredana Raccanello Coaching Kingfisher/Roedean Moira Cullen Coaching Roedean Fiorella Barberini Coaching Kingfisher/Roedean Dominique Philippopoulos Coaching Rippers/Kingsmead Nicholas Pawley Coaching Kingsmead Felicity Hudson Coaching Kingsmead Jenny Van Zyl Coaching Pretoria Girls Gareth Kemp Coaching St. Andrew s/moving back to CT Vic Mijon Inactive Arnry Mijon Inactive Sarah Lafleur Judge/Coach Linked to Jesters? Northern Gauteng Marco Van Der Sluys Coaching Northern Tigers Rhett Gardner? Northern Tigers Margie Buchan Not Active KZN Rosie Quenet Trevor Kezwa Coaching Cape Town Magan Farrow Coaching Canadian East London Nona Keets Coaching Port Elizabeth Adrienne Wilson Coaching Table 3 : No of Coaches per Province 2010 C Again the spatial distribution of these coaches is of concern, as with the diver numbers the coaches basically originate from the Gauteng region. Looking at active coaches and no of divers we look at a ration of 1:2 There exists no form of coaching qualification with in the South African Diving structure Officials While we have been in the process of training judges, and ensuring that coaches do not judge at major or minor competitions there is still some concern that both the practical training and the written test are is not standardised, 12

15 thereby creating different levels of qualification so better or worse prepared judges, which is ultimately unfair on the divers and will in the long run impact negatively on their diving careers. We have a core of technical officials, however they are parents who are often at competitions to support their children, while willing to work we have at numerous competitions both local and national, used divers a table officials. This is not acceptable especially if they are competitors at the competition. We need to continue to train and build up this base. D. Parents Parents need to be educated about the unique aspects of the sport and the stages of development that their children will be passing through. They also need to fully understand the concept of physical/biological maturity versus chronological age as we need them to buy into the programme People who enjoy what they are doing invariably do it well Joe Gibbs, US football coach 13

16 E Facilities Province Name Public/Private Dry Land 0.5m 1m 3m 5m 7.5m 10m Gauteng De Jong Public L.C. De Villiers Public 1 1 Sydnham Public Sasolburg Public Vanderbijl Park Public Kingsmead Private Parktown Girls Private Roedean Private ST. Andrew s** Private St. Dominic s *** Private St. Mary s Private St. Stithians Private Port Elizabeth St. Georges Public Newton Park * Public East London Joan Harrison Public Western Cape Sea Point Public Newlands Public Worchester Public Free State Bleomfontein Public Polekwane Nelspruit Public 1 Pietersburg Kimberly? Public North West Klerksdorp Public 1 1? KZN Kings Park Public Chatsworth Public Girls High Private * Covered and heated ** Being revamped or built currently so information is not available Table : Diving Facilities in South Africa 14

17 Strengths Enthusiasm of coaches and athletes Willingness to learn Support from SSA Fun sport that allows fitness and health for everyone Visually glamorous sport Opportunities Develop a better relationship with SSA and sponsors Utilise all facilities by developing coaches Build relationships with alternative sports gymnastics, trampoline, dance Greater opportunities to compete on the international arena at a club, provincial and national level Build closer links with the schools in certain provinces Weaknesses Lack of paid employees Lack of funding Loss of coaches and judges Limited number of facilities and unevenly spread facilities Low number of registered divers and officials No formal teacher coach educational system No standardised judge education system No athlete pathway Lack of dryland facilities Pool time Threats Closure of facilities Lack of dryland facilities Pool time Dominance of a particular province Fighting for pool space in shared facilities Loss of divers to international programmes Cost of international tours Perhaps the single most important element in mastering The techniques and tactics of racing is experience. But once you have the fundamentals, Acquiring the experience is a matter of time Greg LeMond, cycling champion Figure : SWOT Analysis of Diving in South Africa in

18 3. Where Do We Want To Be Five Pillars A Athletes B C D E Coaches Officials Parents Facilities We need to build our base of divers in the country and to maintain or keep those divers within the sport. Currently we have one actual senior diver all the rest qualify as junior, this has to be addressed. We have to develop a programme that will keep senior divers involved in the sport. We need to improve the number of athletes that stay in the sport both as athletes and as future administrators, coaches and or judges We need to develop an national squad programme for promising athletes We need to inform the divers of what is required of them so that they can develop worthwhile and achievable goals with the motivation of knowing that there is a positive reward for the hard work. Coaches need to become qualified, and increase the base of existing coaches and the spatial inequalities must be addressed. A programme of qualification must be introduced and coaches must legally be qualified to be allowed to coach. As with coaches, we need to standardise the requirements and qualification process for officials as per swimming to ensure that we increase the involvement of ex-divers and parents into our sport, this in turn will grow the clubs and increase their potential to achieve. Continue to build our parent involvement and further their knowledge on the LTAD Plan so as to ensure that they support their coaches' decisions with respect to their children's training and competing programmes. Reduce the competitiveness and pushing of divers by their parents as they become familiar with the biological and mental aspects of the sport along with the actual diving specific knowledge Increase the number of platforms that area available for training in the future Increase the number of facilities that have warm water Develop facilities as athlete development areas where financial and technical support is provided Provide coaches with the correct qualification to coach at facilities with limited equipment. It is recognised that currently there may only be a few clubs that can deliver all the LTAD principles, but like the LTAD Programme itself, this is a long term approach that should assist clubs and training squads to work towards developing the right training environment for all participants in the sport, hence enabling them all to reach their own personal potential. When you stop having fun, you don t win Billie Jean King, tennis champion 16

19 4. How to Get There? The philosophy behind Long Term Athlete Development is that it takes 8-12 years of training and practice for a player to reach elite levels (Bloom, 1985;Ericsson et al., 1993; Ericsson and Charness 1994), and that success comes from training, practicing and competing well over the long term rather than focusing on winning in the short term. There is no short cut to success in player preparation! More importantly children who are not exposed to the basic level of physical literacy will not have the same comfort with physical activity and are less likely to enjoy and pursue lifelong healthy physical activity, or for that matter remain involved in their sport of choice. It is just as well that we are unable to determine at an early age who will become elite athletes, because it is vital that appropriate physical activity is provided to all children, weather they are destined for the podium or to enjoy a health life. In diving the experience of top level coaches and the parents of elite divers have seen the opportunity of earlier development, young divers have illustrated the potential to embrace specific physical challenges at an earlier age than one would expect from an athlete of that age. Additional experience has illustrated that rapid growth during puberty can be a very difficult time, as it disrupts coordination. Girls are not as strong for their weight as they were before their growth spurt, while boys are getting stronger. At the same time centre of gravity and relative limb lengths are changing rapidly. This model for diving suggest an early recruitment to diving, recommends more advanced skills and challenges at an early age., and offers permission to plateau during the challenges of rapid growth. The LTAD Model not only provides the rational justification for enhancing our current system but also provides some of the solutions as to the way forward in starting to tackle some of the weaknesses identified. Development of talent must look beyond the short-term and plan for the future. These are great challenges for our sport. It is hoped that the model will assist all partners in diving: parents will know what physical challenges are safe and encourage accomplishment; coaches will have the endorsement to teach what they know from experience and progressions to do so safely; clubs and schools will be guided to what facilities and coaching is required; and provincial diving organisations will have a guide for the development of the sport. To better understand the LTAD model, and its role in helping participants to achieve these goals, we have identified ten key factors which influence the model and set it apart from other long-term development models. These factors are outlined in the following section. Implement new communication pathway plan Improve current structure Goals stated in SMART format o S Specific o M Measurable o A Attainable o R Realistic o T Timely The ten key factors influencing LTAD 1. The ten year rule Scientific research in sport has concluded that a minimum of ten years, or 10,000 hours of deliberate training is needed for a talented participant to reach elite levels. This translates into an average of more than three hours of training daily for 10 years. There are no shortcuts; participant development is a long-term process. Short-term performance goals must never be allowed to undermine long-term participant development. Gibbons, 2002 Viru,

20 2. The fundamentals - developing physical literacy Fundamental movement skills (running, throwing, catching, hopping, bounding, etc.) and fundamental sport skills equals Physical Literacy. The literature on growth and development indicates that children should master the fundamental movement skills and fundamental sport skills before learning more complicated sport-specific skills and strategies. These fundamental skills should be acquired prior to the onset of the growth spurt which occurs in adolescence. The physical and movement qualities which are developed as physical literacy are essential for participation and enjoyment of sports. Athletics, gymnastics and swimming are three sports which are particularly useful for developing fundamental movement skills and sport skills. Athletics: Gymnastics: Swimming: Develops many of the fundamental movement skills which are components of all other sports, including running, jumping, throwing and for wheelchair participants, wheeling. Encourages the development of the ABC's of athleticism agility, balance, coordination, and speed, along with the fundamental movement patterns of landing, statics, locomotion, rotation, swings, springs and object manipulation. is the foundation for all water sports. It is also important for water safety reasons, and teaches balance in a buoyant environment as well as coordination. Without the basic movement skills, a child will have difficulty participating in any sport, no matter what age they enter that sport. It is also critical that children with disabilities have the opportunity to develop their fundamental movement and sport skills. These skills will aid the child throughout life and ensure that if at all possible they live an active independent life. 3. Specialisation Many of the world's most successful athletes participated as children in a wide variety of sports and physical activities. The movement and sport skills they developed as a result have helped them to attain a high level of athletic achievement. There is much to be gained from a child's early participation in a variety of sports. Early exposure to a wide variety of sport and physical activities will develop some of the physical and movement attributes that are crucial to later success in participation including: agility, balance, conditioning, speed, core body strength, stamina, suppleness, and eye-hand-foot coordination. Early specialization in a late specialization sport can contribute to: Overemphasis on sport specific preparation/ one-sided preparation Lack of development of basic movement and sport skills Overuse injuries Early burnout Premature retirement from training and competition. Disability sports are late specialisation sports and it is vital that these children are exposed to the full range of fundamentals before allowing them to specialise in any specific sporting activity. However this does not mean a late start to the attaining of the fundamentals just a longer period of time spent attaining these skills. 18

21 4. Chronological age vs developmental age A second factor influencing the LTAD has been touched upon earlier. It is the recognition that chronological age differs from developmental age. Chronological age refers to the number of years and days elapsed since birth. Developmental age refers to the child's relative position on a continuum that begins at birth and culminates in full physical maturity. Growth refers to the observable step-by-step changes in the in quantity and measurable changes in body size such as height, weight and fat percentage. Maturation refers to the qualitative system changes, both structural and functional, in the body's progress towards maturity such as the changes in cartilage and bone in the skeleton. Development refers to the interrelationships between growth and maturation in relation to the passage of time. The concept of development also includes the social, emotional, intellectual and motor realms of the child. A participant's developmental age determines when various aspects of sport and physical activity should be introduced or emphasized. The LTAD model uses the categories "early", "average", or "late" matures to identify an athlete's developmental age. These designations help coaches and instructors to design instructional, training and competition programs that are appropriate for the participant's level of development. Identifying an athlete's stage of maturation is not difficult. For specific information on "how to", go to As individuals mature, there are several time sensitive periods when there is accelerated adaptation to training. The model identifies these periods and makes maximum use of them to introduce skill and fitness development. Luck! Sure. But only after long practice and only with the ability to think under pressure Babe Didrikson Zaharias, outstanding American multi-sport athlete of her generation Cited in Long Term Athlete Development Resource Paper V2 pp 23 19

22 Figure 3 : Maturation in Girls and Boy Figure : Maturity Events in Girl Adapted from Growing Up by J. M. Tanner Scientific America 1973 citied in Istvan Balyi and Richard Way The Role of Monitoring Growth in Long-Term Athlete Development, pp 6. Modified after Ross et al, 1977 citied inlong-term Athlete Development, Resource Paper V2,pp24. 20

23 Figure : Maturity Events in Boys It is therefore clear that athletes of the same chronological ages between 10 and 16 can be 4 5 years apart developmentally. Thus it is important for the coach to realise that each athlete will require their own individualised path to success. While for a period of time late matures may feel that they are behind in the training programme, after all athletes have gone through their growth spurt, it is often the later maturers who have greater potential to become top athletes provided they experience quality coaching throughout that period. 5. Trainability The trainability of the 5 S's is well documented in the literature.biological markers, such as the on-set of PHV (adolescent growth spurt), and the on-set of menarche can identify the sensitive periods of accelerated adaptation to training for Stamina, Strength and Skills. The trainability of Speed and Suppleness is based on chronological age. Thus, the biological markers will identify the windows of optimal trainability for accelerated `adaptation to training. (See further details on trainability in the 10S's of training and performance section). Stamina (Endurance): The window of optimal stamina training occurs at the onset of PHV. Aerobic capacity training is recommended before athletes reach PHV. Aerobic power should be introduced progressively after growth rate decelerates. Strength: The window for optimal strength training for girls is immediately after PHV or at the onset of Menarche, while for boys it is 12 to 18 months after PHV Speed: The two windows for optimal speed training for boys, occurs between the ages of 7 and 9 years and the second window occurs between 13 and 16. For girls, the windows for optimal speed training occur between the ages of 6 and 8 years and the second window occurs between the ages of 11 and 13. Skill: The window of optimal skills training for boys takes place between the ages of 9 and 12 and for girls between the ages of 8 and 11 Suppleness (Flexibility): The window of optimal flexibility training for both boys and girls occurs between the ages of 6 and 10. Special attention should be paid to flexibility during PHV. Tactics, fitness, stroke ability, adaptability, experience, and sportsmanship are all necessary for winning Fred Perry, tennis champion Modified after Ross et al, 1977 citied inlong-term Athlete Development, Resource Paper V2,pp24. Brohms, 1985; Viru et al, 1998 and 1999; Rushall, 2000 Balyi,

24 Figure 6 : Optimal Windows of Trainability Balyi and Way,

25 6. Mental, cognitive and emotional development Instructors and coaches should recognize that individuals mature at different rates and that the timetable for physical, mental, motor and emotional development varies from athlete to athlete. Instructors and coaches are encouraged to take a holistic approach to teaching and training athletes. This means taking into account a wide variety of psycho-social and emotional factors that influence the athlete day-to-day. Cognitive, mental and emotional (affective) elements have a significant effect on participants' performance, and must be prioritized in long-term participant development. Beyond these elements, instructors and coaches should also consider equipment and environmental factors that impact participation, performance and safety. Ethics, including fair play, respect of self and others, and perseverance should be developed within all stages of long term participant development (see appendix V for further details on mental, cognitive and emotional development). 7. Periodisation (annual training, competition and recovery plan) Periodisation provides the framework for organizing training, competition and recovery into a logical and scientifically based schedule to achieve optimum performance at the required time. A periodised annual plan that takes into account growth, maturation and trainability principles should be developed for all stages of LTAD. Simply put, designing a periodised yearly plan is time management. This involves planning the right activities with the correct level of difficulty, in the correct sequence to reach the desired training and competition objectives. The plan can be broken down into workable units. The proper sequencing of these units is critical for success. To reach optimum performance in a competitive environment, the training units should be sequenced in the following manner: Develop the performance capacity of the participant including physical literacy and sport specific skills, tactics/strategies, physical components, mental skills; Integrate the performance factors in a complex and harmonious blend; Prepare the participant to perform at needs to know competitions. In order to design an annual plan, the coach needs to know: How the sport specific athletic form is developed; The requirements (demands) of the sport during competition; The demands of the sport during the preparation phase; The competition calendar and the relative importance or purpose of each competition; The actual training state of the athlete at the start of the yearly plan; The contextual reality that the coach and athlete have to cope with; The principles of long term athlete development. Creating a blueprint for success involves accurate and effective planning of training, competition and recovery. Below is an example for a single and double periodisation. 23

26 Table : Phases of an Annual Plan for Single and Double Periodisation 8. Calendar planning for competition The domestic competitive and event calendar must support and be aligned with LTAD. Different stages of development and different levels of participation have different requirements for the type, frequency and level of competition. At some stages of development, training and development take precedence over competitions and short-term success. During the later stages participants need to experience a variety of competitive situations and perform well at international and other high level events. National and international competition and event calendars must be coordinated, and competitions selected according to the priorities of the specific stage of development of the participants. 9. System alignment and integration LTAD recognizes that physical education, school sports, recreational activities and competitive sport are interdependent. Enjoying a lifetime of physical activity and achieving athletic excellence are both built on a foundation of physical literacy and fitness. Stakeholders in LTAD include participants, instructors, coaches, parents, administrators, spectators, sponsors and supporting national and multi-sport organizations. With so many partners included, system integration and alignment is a major challenge. It is important that all components of the diving community divers, judges, coaches, parents, administrators, spectators, sponsors, and supporting national, provincial, territorial and multi sport organizations work together to implement the right programs and establish a system that produces optimal condition for training and competition. All parts of the sport community must be integrated and aligned. With so many partners across so vast a country and with different demographic compositions, system integration and alignment are major challenges. Each element in the system plays a crucial role in a divers' development. The system must be clear, seamless, and based upon a consistent set of principles. 10. Continuous improvement (KAIZEN) LTAD is a dynamic framework that utilizes continuous adjustments based on key principles. Continuous improvement ensures that: LTAD responds and reacts to new scientific and sport-specific innovations and observations and is subject to continuous research in all its aspects. LTAD, as a continuously evolving vehicle for change, reflects all emerging facets of physical education, sport and recreation to ensure systematic and logical delivery of programs to all ages LTAD promotes ongoing education and sensitization of all partners about the interlocking relationship between physical education, school sport, community recreation, life-long physical activity and high performance sport. LTAD promotes integration between sport, physical education, recreation, health and education. 24

27 THE 10 S'S OF TRAINING AND PERFORMANCE The original 5 Basic S's of training and performance was introduced in the Canadian Sport for Life: Long-term Athlete Development document. Building on the physical development, an additional Five S's create a complete, holistic, training, competition and recovery program and a proper lifestyle. Thus, there are Ten S's of training which need to be integrated when developing annual training, competition and recovery plans. Each of these capacities is trainable throughout a player's lifetime, but there are clearly critical periods (or sensitive periods) in the development of each capacity during which training produces the greatest benefit to each athlete/player's improvements. In all former LTAD documents the windows of trainability have been referred to as the critical periods of accelerated training; however, scientist now believes that critical periods should be referred to as sensitive periods. (1). Thus, windows of trainability refer to periods of accelerated adaptation to training during the sensitive periods of pre-puberty, puberty and early post-puberty. The windows are fully open during the sensitive periods of accelerated adaptation to training and partially open outside of the sensitive periods. These sensitive periods vary between individuals as each athlete/player is unique in their genetic makeup. While the sensitive periods follow general stages of human growth and maturation, scientific evidence shows that humans vary considerably in the magnitude and rate of their response to different training stimuli at all stages. Some players may show potential for excellence by age 11, whereas others may not indicate their promise until age 15 or 16. Consequently, a long-term approach to athlete/player development is needed to ensure that players who respond slowly to training stimuli are not short-changed in their development. Stamina (Endurance:) The sensitive period for training stamina occurs at the onset of the growth spurt or Peak Height Velocity (PHV), commonly known as the adolescent growth spurt. Athletes/players need increased focus on aerobic capacity training (continuous or aerobic interval workloads) as they enter PHV, and they should be progressively introduced to aerobic power training (anaerobic interval workloads) The sensitive periods in trainability are referred to the windows of accelerated adaptation to training. as their growth rate decelerates. However, sport-specific needs will determine how much endurance is enough in a particular sport, thus minor or major emphasis of training the aerobic system will be defined by sport-specific and individual specific needs. A reminder: The windows are fully open during the sensitive periods of accelerated adaptation to training and partially open outside of the sensitive periods. 25

28 Strength There are two critical windows of trainability for strength in girls: immediately after PHV and after the onset of menarche. Boys have one strength window, and it begins 12 to 18 months after PHV. Again, sport-specific needs will determine how much strength is enough in a particular sport, thus minor or major emphasis of training strength will be defined by sport-specific and individual specific needs. A reminder: The windows are fully open during the sensitive periods of accelerated adaptation to training and partially open outside of the sensitive periods. Speed: There are two critical windows of trainability for speed. For girls, the first speed window occurs between the ages of six and eight years, and the second window occurs between 11 and 13 years. For boys, the first speed window occurs between the ages of seven and nine years, and the second window occurs between 13 and 16 years. During the first speed window, training should focus on developing agility and quickness (duration of the intervals is less than five seconds); during the second speed window, training should focus on developing the anaerobic alactic power energy system (duration of the intervals is seconds). It is highly recommended that speed should be trained on a regular and frequent basis, for example, at every training session as part of the warm up. Towards the end of the warm up or immediately after the warm there is no Central Nervous System or metabolic fatigue present in the organism, and so this is an optimal time to train speed. The volume of training should be low and allow full recovery between exercises and sets. Short acceleration with proper posture and elbow and knee drive, take-off speed and segmental speed should be trained regularly outside of the window of optimal trainability for speed. In addition, proper blocks of training should be allocated to speed training during the periodised annual training, competition and recovery program according to seasonal and the sport-specific requirements. A reminder: The windows are fully open during the sensitive periods of accelerated adaptation to training and partially open outside of the sensitive periods. Skill: Girls and boys both have one window for optimal skill training. For girls, the window is between the ages of eight and 11 years, while in boys it is between nine and 12 years. During this window, young athletes should be developing physical literacy. Physical literacy is the development of fundamental movement skills and fundamental sports skills that permit a child to move confidently and with control, in a wide range of physical activity and sport situation. It also includes the ability to read what is going on around them in an activity setting and react appropriately to those events. Physical literacy is the foundation of life-long involvement in physical activity and also for high performance participation. A reminder: The windows are fully open during the sensitive periods of accelerated adaptation to training and partially open outside of the sensitive periods. Suppleness: The critical window of trainability for suppleness occurs between the ages of six and 10 years in both girls and boys. However, because of the rapid growth special attention should also be paid to flexibility during the growth spurt. A reminder: The windows are fully open during the sensitive periods of accelerated adaptation to training and partially open outside of the sensitive periods. Structure / Stature: This component addresses the six stages of growth (Phase 1: very rapid growth and very rapid deceleration; Phase 2: steady growth; Phase 3: rapid growth; Phase 4: rapid deceleration; Phase 5: slow deceleration; Phase 6: cessation of growth) in the human body linking them to the windows of optimal trainability. It recognizes stature (the height of a human) before during and after maturation guiding a coach or parent to the measurements needed to track growth. The tracking of stature as a guide to developmental age allows planning to address the sensitive periods of physical (endurance, strength, speed and flexibility) and skill development. Diagnostics to identify individually relevant sensitive periods of accelerated adaptation to training is essential to design and implement optimal training, competition and recovery programs. 26

29 (p)sychology: Sport is a physical and mental challenge. The ability to maintain high levels of concentration, remain relaxed with the confidence to succeed are skills that transcend sport to everyday life. To develop the mental toughness for success at high levels requires training programs which are designed specific to the gender and LTAD stage of the athlete. The training programs should include key mental components identified by sport psychologists; concentration, confidence, motivation and handling pressure. As an athlete progresses through LTAD stages the mental training aspect will evolve from: having fun and respecting opponents; to visualization and self-awareness; to goal setting, relaxation and positive self-talk. To master the mental challenge of sport those basic skills are then tested in increasingly difficult competitive environments. Ultimately the planning, implementing and refining of mental strategies for high level competition will determine podium performances. The mental training program is critical at any LTAD stage as dealing with success and failure will determine continuation in sport and physical activity, therefore dramatically affecting an individual lifestyle. Sustenance Sustenance recognizes a broad range of components with the central theme of replenishing the body. This is to prepare the athlete for the volume and intensity required to optimize training or living life to the fullest. Areas addressed are: nutrition, hydration, rest, sleep and regeneration, all of which need to be applied different to training (life) plans depending on the stage within the LTAD. Underlining sustenance is the need for optimal recovery management moving the athlete to the 24/7 model which places a high degree of importance on the individual's activities away from the field of play. For proper sustenance and recovery management there is a need to monitor recovery by the coach or parent through the identification of fatigue. Fatigue can come in many forms including: metabolic; neurological; psychological; environmental and travel. While overtraining or over-competition can lead to burn-out, improperly addressing sustenance can lead to the same result. Schooling In training program design the demands of school must be considered. This is only limited to the demands placed by school sports or physical education classes. This includes integrating school academic loads, duties, school related stresses, and timing of exams. When possible, training camps and competition tours should compliment, not conflict, with the timing of major schools academic events. Overstress should be monitored carefully. Overstress refers to the everyday stresses of life, like schooling, exams, peer groups, family, boyfriend or girlfriend relationships as well as increased training volume and intensities. Interference from other school sports should be minimized, communication between coaches who are responsible to deliver the training and competition programs are essential. A good balance should be established between all factors and the coach and the parents should be working on this together. Socio-Cultural: The socio-cultural aspects of sport are significant and must be managed through proper planning. Socialization via sport will ensure that general societal values and norms will be internalized via sport participation. This occurs at the community level and as an athlete progresses through the LTAD stages can lead to International exposure. This socialization can be broadening of perspective including; ethnicity awareness, national diversity. Within the travel schedule recovery can include education of competition location including; history, geography, architecture, cuisine, literature, music and visual arts. Proper annual planning can allow sport to offer much more than simply commuting between hotel room and field of play. Sport socialization also must address sport sub-culture. As well, coaches and parents must guard against group dynamics which create a culture of abuse or bullying. Ethics training should be integrated into training and competition plans at all stages of LTAD. Overall sociocultural activity is not negative distraction or interference with training and competition activities. It is a positive contribution to the development of the person and the athlete. Children often choose to play a sport after the windows optimal of trainability for speed, skill, and suppleness have past. These children are therefore dependent on schools, recreation programs, and other sports to provide timely training in these capacities. LTAD advocates that sports build relationships with these organizations to promote and support appropriate training. If athletes miss these training periods entirely, coaches will need to design individualized programs to remedy any shortcomings. 27

30 Building a Pathway Long term Athlete Development serves as a generic developmental framework. It is not the bible and should not be treated as such. The art of coaching is the coaches' ability to manipulate and make the structure pliable for each unique individual as they pass through the various life stages of the model. It is reasonable to realise that precious talent will move through the stages at a faster rate, even in the advent of maturation and its effects on performance capabilities. It is also important to realise that divers may enter the sport at different ages and not necessarily as youngster and that they may move form a similar to totally unrelated sporting activity or not sporting activity at all. Hence it is obvious that flexibility in these various levels is also needed in order to adapt to the changing trends that characterise high performance sport. Long Term Athlete Development Diving Competitive Figure : Sport Specific Stages of Development and Windows of Trainability Young divers are physically developing from early childhood through to late adolescence, and through this journey they will have different performing capabilities and adaptations to training and competition. It is this exact reason that each diver should have a unique journey through the sport and that programmes should not just be scaled down or different for males and females. Scientific literature typically categorises these stages into three Key phases, being: Late Childhood Adolescence; Early puberty Late puberty Early Adulthood Appendix IV is a summary table that outlines physical, mental and cognitive characteristics observed at each stage, the general consequence on performance and the implications to training regimes the coach needs to consider. Taken from Diving Canada Long-Term Athlete Development Model Adapted from Long-Term Athlete Development Resource paper V2 pp

31 The LTAD Framework The diving LTAD model has adopted the seven stages suggested by Istvan Balyi that are closely related to the sensitive periods of trainability. These stages of the LTAD are specifically related to an early specialisation sport and Diving distinguishes seven stages of athlete development. These stages have been renamed to become more sport specific, and age ranges modified to accommodate the fact that diving is an early specialisation sport. Stage New Name Females Age Males Age Old Name 1 Active Start Active Start 2 Flip?Fun FUNdamentals 3 Technical Foundations Learn to Train 4 Competitive Foundations Training to Train 5 Consolidation Train to Compete 6 Realisation Train to Win 7 Active for Life Any age Any Age Active for Life Table : The Specific Stage of the Diving LTAD Sports Entry: Technical Foundation: Competitive Foundations: their competitive dive lists. Consolidation: Realisation: The most important goals are those that ensure the kids like diving, stay in diving and learn the basics. Learn all the basic skills sets for diving. This is a very important stage for future development and is a big step from Stage 1 Apply the basic skill sets to the dives performed in competitions, to expand the skills sets, and to assemble To consolidate all of the acquired skills for competition and to reach diving potential. As above to all of the acquired skills for competition and to reach diving potential. 29

32 Table 7: Suggested Training Objectives for the Specific Stages of Diving LTAD 30

33 Table 8: Suggested Skills for the Specific Stages of the Diving LTAD 31

34 Table 9: Suggested Training Objectives for the Specific Stages of Diving LTAD 32

35 Table 10: Periodisation and Intensity for Specific Stages of the Diving LTAD Periodisation Periodisation is the plan for peaking for competitions, with increasing and decreasing cycles of training load. Early stages of athlete's development have no significant changes in the cycle of training loads, but later this becomes important to build up the full competitive list, while allowing enough rest to perform well. Stage 1: Stage 2: Stage 3: Stage 4/5 No periodisation No periodisation Single Single or double Training load is measured by two key measures intensity and volume. In diving it is often harder to measure these to measures than in sports such as athletics and swimming where speed, heart rate and distance may be measured and varied. A Intensity Intensity in diving is perhaps only measurable by assessing the difficulty and effort required of a diver to complete a dive. Any dive must always be completed with a high level of precision to avoid injury, and therefore places consistently high demands on the diver. However a simple dive for an accomplished diver is relatively low intensity. This is especially true at lower heights 1m and 3m. For divers just learning the intensity is always high. In other training, intensities can be lower. Some lead-ups (progressions for more difficult dives) have a low precision requirement; it is safe for a diver to be relatively relaxed and enter the water other than in a vertical position. Similarly 1m drills are less intense and offer less consequences. There are more consequences in 3m and especially 7m and 1m tower. Therefore the following definition for intensity in the sport of diving is offered: Intensity = an individualised subjective measure of the effort, difficulty or precision of movements for any given dive or group of dives. 33

36 Examples of medium and high intensity practices lowest: jumps, entry drills, simple dives medium: lead-ups (not requiring peak strength), compulsories on 10m high: competition environment, new dives, 10 m optional(s), dives requiring peak strength and precision. Essentially the coach need a sliding scale and must make a judgement call for each diver. Considerations 10 m is higher than 1m or side of pool High DD is higher intensity than lower DD (though not in all cases) New dives are higher intensity Diving tower is easier for some younger divers than 3m springboard (coach needs to know athlete) B Volume For most divers, the number of divers is a reasonable indicator of volume. Height and difficulty of the dive add to the volume of the work completed. Considerations More dives is more volume Total number of movements (not just dives) must be considered Density -= exercise and recuperation within time frame. Consider rest as well as total intensity and volume. The following estimate of a multiplier effect on volume from diving from higher heights is suggested: 1 x 10m dive = 1.25 x 7mt; x 5mt. 2.5 x 3mt, 2 x 3ms/b, 3 x 1m, 5 x 1mt, 6 x side of pool. C Non Sport Stresses Periodisation must consider accumulated stress from factors outside the sport: Volume Life stresses (scheduled stresses such as exams, menstruation) Unscheduled (emotional crises, illness, injury) Cumulative stresses. 34

37 APPENDIX I DIVE PROGRESSIONS FOR ALL DIVES taken from British Diving Table 11: Forward Skills Chain c (3m s/b) 35

38 Table 12: Backward Skill Chain C (3 m s/b) 36

39 Table 13: Reverse Skill Chain C (3m s/b) Table 14 : Inward Skill Chain c (3m s/b) 37

40 Table 15 : Forward Twist Skill Chain Basic Drills to 5154b (3ms/b) 38

41 Table 16 : Reverse twist Skill Chain Basic Drills to 5353b (3m s/b) 39

42 APPENDIX II suggested dive skills chart for each specific LTAD stage BOARD/LEVEL Dives in italics are advanced or optional skills Deck tower/side of pool 1 m tower 1 m s/b 3 m s/b 3 m tower 5 m tower 7,5 m tower 10 m tower Sports Entry Technical Foundations *with approach Competitive Foundations Consolidation Realisation 100 A,C, B C 102 C 100 A,C,B 200 A,C,B 101 C 102 C 201 C-drop 401C, B 202 C 302 C 402 C 102B 202 B 302 B 301 C 201 C 100 A* 101 C* 102 C, B* 201 A 103 C,B 302 B 621 C,B 105B 5233 D 5331 D 5333 D 5325 D 5142 B 5134 B 405C (Armswin g 100 A,C, B) (Hurdle 100, A,C,B) C, B C,B 201 C,B 301 C,B.A 401 C,B 103 C,B 403 C,B 203 C,B 303 C 105 C 104 C,B 105 C 203 C,B 204 C 303 C,B 304 C 401 A 403 C,B 404 C 5122 D 2132 D 5221 D 5231 D 5223 D A , A,C,B Hurdle Back swing C,B 201 C,B 301 C,B.A 401 C,B 103 C,B 403 C,B 203 C, B 303 C 105 C 105 C,B 203 C,B 205 C 303 C,B 305 C 303 C,B 405 C 5132 D 5231 D 5233 D 5235 D 107 C 205 B 305 B 405 B 5235 D 5335 D 5152 B Maximize dive list for points and keep building dd to score. 001 A,B,C 002 A,B,C 101 C,B 201 C,B 301 C,B 401 C, B 103 B 403 C 203 C 103 C,B 105 C 203 C,B 204 C 303 C 304 C 403 C,B 404 C 5122 B 202 A 5221 D 5223 D 612 C,B 623 C Jump Forward Entry 001 A,B,C 002 A,B,C 101 C,B 201 C,B 301 C,B 401 C, B 103 B 403 C 203 C 105 C,B 203 C,B 303 C 403 C.B 205 C 405 C 204 B 304 C 5231 D 5233 D 612 B 105 B 205 C 303 B 405 C 5233 D 623 C 624 C Jump Forward Entry 010 Any C,B 103 C,B 201 C,B 301 C.B 401 C,B 403 B 105 B 405 C 5132 D 5231 D 5233 D 5235 D 205 C,B 305 C 612 B 623 A 6231C 6533 C 103 B 403 B 101 B 401 B 201 B 301 B 5231 D 5132 D 612 C,B 107 C,B 205 B 207 C 305 C,B 405 B 407 C 5233 D 5235 D 614 C. B 624 C,B 656 C.B 6243 B 40

43 APPENDIX III Suggested dryland skills chart for each specific LTAD stage Sport Entry Level Trampoline Dryland Ground Jumps Hurdle Front rolls Hurdles 101 A, C, B 102 assisted Armswings 200 A, C, B 002 Seat Drop 201 C (backdrop) Back rolls Kill Bounce Jumps Back Drop Rolls 102 to seat Bounds 201 C,B (Backdrop) Cartwheels Etc. Technical Foundations 201 C* 301 C* 302 C,B 203 B* 303 C,B* 102 C,B 402 C,B * = Backdrop 100 (with armswimg or hurdle) C,B 202 C,B 302 C (with hurdle or armswing) 201 B* 301 C,B* 402 C 102 C,B Standing, Hopping, front approach 202 C (assisted or unassisted) 402 C (assisted or unassisted) 5211 A Takeoff drill 103 takeoff drill (3/4 to shoulders) Competitive Foundations Consolidation Realisation Add 202 A 5221 D to seat and stand 5122 D 5224 D 104 C, B 204 C,B 304 C,B 404 C,B * = Backdrop Add 202 A 5221 D 5122 D 5223 D 402 B 104 C,B 302 C,B with or without hand spot 204 C,B 304 C,B Maintain and improve all skills learned in previous stages Add 202 C unspotted 202 B with or without hand spot 302 C 611 for m 611 with kip 621 Add 302 B hand spot 202 B, no spot 302 C no spot 41

44 APPENDIX IV Periodisation chart competitive foundations 42

45 APPENDIX V Physical, mental / cognitive and emotional developemnt for all the stages Late Childhood - Physical Developmental Characteristics and their Implications Life Basic Characteristics General Consequences on Implications for Coaching Phase Performance Capabilities Larger primary muscle The diver is more skilled in gross motor Coach should focus in refining genera basic groups are more developed movements involving larger muscle skills during this phase. Related multilateral than the smaller secondary groups. More precise, highly skill based, foundations such as dance, gymnastic; ones fine motor control movements are less trampoline, and floor work and dive skills easy to acquire at this phase should be encouraged. FUN must be emphasised with the activities being a general Late Childhood Flip n Fun/ FU Ndamentals (Sport Entry through the Mu ltilateral Dive Skills Development) Tendons and ligaments become stronger but the ends of the bones where growth plates are located are still cartilaginous. General recovery abilities in both aerobic and anaerobic systems, is relatively slow. Basic motor patterns such as agility, balance, coordination, and speed still require refinement. Girls develop coordination skills more rapidly than boys at this phase. Although boys have superior hand-eye and eye-foot coordination. General body control of both genders is unrefined. Avoid excessive stress or high loads on susceptible joints for growth plate injuries i.e. wrists and knees. Insufficient recovery time between activities results in technique breakdown. Rule of thumb if they cant hold the technique... don t mould the technique Limited ability in fine motor control activities. Speed, power, flexibility and coordination greatly improve towards the end of this phase There are no significant gender difference in performance capabilities in this phase extension of structured play. All movements should focus on body control. Exercises should be using own body weight and involve good technique. Avoid high loads but encourage maximum speed mechanics (i.e. low repetitions but at speed that mimic dive skill activities). This aids correct neuromuscular learning. Ensure sufficient recovery and restoration between activities. Coordination activities that focus on developing kinaesthetic awareness should be encouraged such as dance, gymnastics, fun, and low intensity athletic circuits. This lays down a solid multilateral base preparing for specialisation in the future Both genders should be encouraged to play and train together at this phase. Both genders should be exposed to a variety of exercises from both diving and other related sports. Coaches should introduce drills that develop attention control. This will assist them in preparing them for the greater demands of training and competing in the next phase. 43

46 Late Childhood Mental, Cognitive and Emotional Developmental Characteristics and their Implications Life Basic Characteristics General Consequences on Implications for Coaching Phase Performance Capabilities They have established They may be visual, auditory or Find out how they learn best, and incorporate preferred ways of learning kinaesthetic learners this style into your coaching of the diver. In the warm up, ensure that there are diving like activities, quick training pace. In training set challenges and competitions for those who enjoy it as well as keeping your technical focus. They are enthusiastic and They may want to get on and do it and In your comments, talk about the dive rather often impatient may get frustrated when prevented from than the diver, e.g. that dive was... rather doing so. You have a chance to build on than you did.... Late Childhood Flip n Fun/ FUNdamentals (Sport Entry through the Multilateral Dive Skills Development) They tend to evaluate their performance as a whole, and this is how they feel about themselves as a person They understand in language of feeling rather than verbal information They feel secure when there is a routine and pattern in what is happening in training and how you behave. this enthusiasm and develop their motivation. They may say I m useless or that dive was rubbish. We need to start building the ability to think rationally under pressure. They need to build into memory what a good dive felt like in order to be able to recreate it Introduce changes sensitively, and at a pace they can cope with. They like to receive information in different ways, and will only cope with small chunks of information in one go. Some will enjoy the risk and fear of diving in manageable doses, others will find this threatening. Get them to break the dive down into P.T.F.E 1 phases and be able to identify how they performed in each phase. They will start to be able to see specifically where errors occurred. When they perform well, get them to feel it again on the poolside tag this feeling for them by doing this along with lots of positive reinforcement and praise. Review the structure of your sessions, and look to make any changes where you feel further structure is needed. Leave personal issues at home and try to present a consistent personality don t make them have to guess what mood you are going to be in! Present information via verbal, physical demonstrations, tasks, videos, and by getting them doing as much as possible When you need to talk keep your key points to two Tune into why they are diving, and what they enjoy try to tailor some of the individual tasks so that they motivate each diver as fully as possible. 44

47 Adolescence Early Puberty - Physical Developmental Characteristics and their Implications Life Basic Characteristics General Consequences on Implications for Coaching Phase Performance Capabilities Significant changes occur in Growth spurts can often influence the Adapt and individualise the training drills/skills body composition such as athlete s ability to adapt and make to ensure they are growth friendly. Training is fat, muscle and bone technical changes rapidly. Progress can focussed around the body adapting to specific temporarily stagnate. training load increments to prepare for competitions. Record changes in height, sitting height, arm-span and weight on a monthly basis. Consider altering training if performance is affected during rapid growth times. Girls begin their growth Variances in performance are often the Coaches are encouraged to emphasise good spurt (rapid gain of weight result of growth rates. Rapid growth techniques and constantly re-visit basics during and height) between 10 spurts (PHV) can often explain lack of this phase. Focus should not be on medal 14 years while boys between coordination and motor abilities along winning performances de-emphasise years. Girls, on with loss of dives that could be previously winning! Modification to dive lists may be average attain their executed. required during this phase. maximum rate of growth a t Adolescence - Early Puberty Technical Foundations and Competitive Foundations age 11( range) with peak average stature reached at 13. Boy s maximum rate of growth is at 14 years (12.5 to 15.5 range)with full statue reached at 15.5 Primary and secondary sexual characteristics appear during this phase. With the normal onset of menarche for girls is years, intensive training in younger years can alter this. Changes in body composition such as fat mass, fat free mass and muscle mass occur during this phase. For girls involved in rigorous training (> 10 hours per week), regular checks on iron status should be monitored at the onset of menarche. Change in physique cam lead to individuals feeling self-conscious, awkward and embarrassed. Situations and/or comments about their sexual development can cause fear and /or anxiety and should be avoided. 45

48 Adolescence Early Puberty - Physical Developmental Characteristics and their Implications - Continued Life Basic Characteristics General Consequences on Implications for Coaching Phase Performance Capabilities Smaller connecting muscle Speed, agility and neuromuscular Volume and intensity of training can be groups such as stabilisers coordination improve rapidly during this gradually increased during this time- but are become more developed phase. dependant on growth spurts once again. Training designed should reinforce best practice skill development and technique. Strength exercises should focus on core sections of the body, in particular hips, lower back, and abdomen. Most exercises should involve body weight and light equipment. Injury preventative exercises targeting shoulders and wrist regions should be incorporated into general dry-land training. Proportionality of the body Centre of gravity alters and consequently With changes in proportions of the body, dive changes various skills may require re-learning/rebuilding. lists may be needed adjustment, along with proportions of the body board preferences. The coach may need to commence growing at explore the varied technique with the diver, to various rates. For example, find a new style that accommodates their limbs such as legs and arms changes in body proportions. Skills may require will reach peak velocity rebuilding. Competition objectives should focus Adolescence - Early Puberty Technical Foundations and Competitive Foundations before the trunk. Whilst the aerobic system significantly increases at this phase (especially in boys due to a surge of the male hormone testosterone), the anaerobic systems are still less refined. The central nervous systems are almost fully developed by this phase. Boys recover faster from harder and longer training sessions than girls during this phase. Agility, coordination and neuromuscular abilities are fully trainable during this phase on attainment of correct technique under pressure versus wining. High intensity dry land exercises should be short in duration (no more than 20 seconds in length), and should encourage sound technique. Sufficient recovery time should be planned into weekly training schedules. All activities should focus on body control and correct mechanics. Encourage multiple chain exercises using varying muscle groups. More complex skills can be trained, but constant refining of basics is essential. 46

49 Adolescence Early Puberty Mental Cognitive and Emotional Developmental Characteristics and their Implications Life Basic Characteristics General Consequences on Implications for Coaching Phase Performance Capabilities Thinking abilities develop They can begin to understand the Don t be afraid to provide them with the why and become more mature. mechanical concepts of their sport they a re going to do particular things within a movement e.g. understanding the importance of speed in rotation. Develop a culture in which making mistakes is valued it is a necessary part of learning, and try to use humour to lighten difficult moments. The peer group in training should be used to support rather than pressure the individual. Self esteem is fragile The diver may feel unhappy about Provide feedback that refers to the dive rather performing in front of others if they are than the person. Be aware of the sensitive learning a dive, or lack confidence nature of this subject. Quality of performance can A poor performance means the diver feels Ensure good nutritional support/education so reflect how the divers feel bad about himself or herself as a person. that good practice is achieved and maintained. about themselves as a person Awareness of body image is Body image may be a sensitive issue, and Humour can be useful. But it can be hurtful. Adolescence - Early Puberty Technical Foundations and Competitive Foundations well established There will possibly be tensions between the diver and certain adults in their lives (e.g. parents/teachers) Social interaction and the development of friendships between ales and females is important They may start to feel that repeated practice will enhances the quality of the dive. if self confidence is low, the diver may feel vulnerable. Relationships may pass through difficult times, and the coach may become an ally in the eyes of the diver. The diver will enjoy social activities that allow them to develop the ability to form positive relationships They may want to continue training, when you feel they have done enough. Try to organise opportunities that are social as well as the diving time, ensuring a professional approach throughout. Recognise the power you have, Communicate effectively with both divers and parent(s). Explain the practice doesn t necessarily make perfect idea, and that quality training is essential rather than quantity 47

50 Adolescence Late Puberty - Physical Developmental Characteristics and their Implications Life Basic Characteristics General Consequences on Implications for Coaching Phase Performance Capabilities All physiological systems reach maturity during this phase. Physiological systems are capable of giving maximum output. Progressive improvements in dominant motor abilities such as power, anaerobic capacity, specific coordination and dynamic flexibility become apparent. Base strength/endurance and power can be sharpened for maximum performance gains. Firstly, increase volumes for specific exercises and drills. Then, steadily increase training intensity more rapidly than volume over a gradual period of time. Training should stimulate the actions that take place during competitions. Physical training should be closely monitored by use of sports science to ensure maximum adaption and minimum injury. Ensure yearly musculoskeletal screenings to see all muscle groups and body alignment are well balanced. Encourage athletes to maintain training diaries commenting on key markers of overtraining on a weekly basis. Increase the number of competitions progressively, so that by the end of this phase the diver is competing as frequently as senior-level competitors. Increase in height and weight begin to stabilise. Interconnecting tissue, tendons and muscles become significantly stronger and more stable. Divers who have been in well-rounded programme emphasising multilateral development will now start performing skills specifically aimed at highperformance delivery. Coach must monitor volume and intensity of training to ensure the diver improves at a steady pace with little risk or injury or over-training syndrome. At this phase, the diver should have no major technical difficulties, thus the coach can move from a teaching role to a more coaching (training) role. Competition objectives should focus on attainment of technique perfection under pressure. Adolescence Late Puberty/Early Adulthood Consolidation Skeletal maturation continues to develop reaching a peak in females at age years and males approximately 3 years later. As height stabilises, more complex skills should be re-introduced. While muscles have grown to full size, their function and general power output will continue to increase till late twenties. Full training loads can be applied. Sports specific strength training should be maximised during this phase to improve overall strength /power development. Body weight exercises combined with free weights (supervised and technique based only) are recommended. In the later part of this phase, maximum strength gains, divers can commence weight training with low repetitions but with a slightly heavier weight. Sports specific neuromuscular training should also continue in this phase such as somersaults, rig and trampoline work. Skills and drills should be characterised as repeatable, consistent and of the highest technical quality, and should be performed under pressure. 48

51 Adolescence Late Puberty Mental Cognitive and Emotional Developmental Characteristics and their Implications Life Basic Characteristics General Consequences on Implications for Coaching Phase Performance Capabilities Thinking abilities develop They can begin to understand the Don t be afraid to provide them with the why and become more mature. mechanical concepts of their sport. they are doing particular things within a movement e.g. understanding the importance of speed in rotation. Critical thinking is becoming The diver is capable of taking more You can only expect a diver to become more established. responsibility for decision making and independent if you have gradually given them governing their own organisation. opportunities in which to learn the skill. Ensure that you have built on from asking their input to handing over some responsibility (gradually) so that they can develop. The Peer Group is still A group setting should be seen as Use older/younger pairings for role model influential and important. supportive rather than threatening. benefits and increased ability to coach anad understand diving. There is of course the need to compete against each other. However, within this context, aim to develop a team mentality via team-work exercises, games and experiences Other issues will be They need to know that you are Try to develop an educational programme that important e.g. managing interested in their life outside of diving. supports their journey through diving studying for exams alongside wherever that may be leading. training. The ability to be They can take responsibility for their Reflect on where you are both at, and when the independent has been diving and their lives with guidance from diver needs to make changes, try guide them to developed. others. finding their own answers, give your expertise Adolescence Late Puberty/Early Adulthood Consolidation They expect to work within the boundaries and in a culture of high expectation. Life affecting decisions are made at this stage in terms of training, study, career, and relationships. You can use the need and expectation of structure to promote high standards within diving. It can be a confusing time, and the perception may be that a diver has to try and juggle everything alone. when it is needed, and let them enjoy the confidence that feeling competent brings. Have a diver representative be part of the team that puts together your code of conduct. Where appropriate, this should mirror what is expected of them at international status. Offer guidance and support, using professional agencies where you need to. You can offer an experienced and informed point of view, and it will be important to consider other opinions also. 49

52 APPENDIX VI - Selected bibliography Balyi, I. Sport system building and long-term athlete development in Canada. The situation and solutions, in Coaches Report. The Official Publication of the Canadian Professional Coaches Association. Summer Vol.8, No.1, pp Balyi, I., Cardinal, C., Higgs, C., Norris, S., and Way, R.: Long-Term Athlete Development: Canadian Sport for Life. Canadian Sport Centres, Broms Higgs, C., Balyi, I., Bluechard, M., Cardinal, C., Norris, S., and Way, R.: Long-Term Athlete Development: No Accidental Champions. Athletes with a Disability, Canadian Sport Centres, Higgs, C., Balyi, I., Bluechard, M., Cardinal, C., Norris, S., and Way, R.: Developing Physical Literacy. Canadian Sport Centres, Malina, R.M. and Bouchard, C. Growth, Maturation, and Physical Activity. Champaigne, IL: Human Kinetics, Rushall, B. The Growth of Physical Characteristics in Male and Female Children. In Sports Coach, Vol. 20, Summer pp Taylor, B. Long-term Athlete Development Plan for Rowing. An overview. Rowing Canada, Victoria, BC, Canada, Viru, A. (1995) Adaptation in Sports Training. CRC Press, Boca Raton. Viru, A, Loko, J., Volver, A., Laaneots, L., Karlesom, K and Viru, M. Age periods of accelerated improvements of muscle strength, power, speed and endurance in age interval 6-18 years. In "Biology of Sport", Warsaw, V., 15 (4) 1998, pp. Viru, A., Loko, J., Harro, M., Volver, A., Laaneots, L., Viru, M. (1999). Critical periods in the development of performance capacity during childhood and adolescence. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 4:1, pp Whitehead, M (2001) The concept of physical literacy. European Journal of Physical Education (6), pp

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