Ethnomedicinal uses of exotic plant species in South-central Zimbabwe

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1 Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge Vol. 17 (1), January 2018, pp Ethnomedicinal uses of exotic plant species in South-central Zimbabwe Alfred Maroyi Medicinal plants and Economic Development Research (MPED) Center, Department of Botany, University of Fort Hare, Private Bag X1314, Alice 5700, South Africa Received 3 April 2017, revised 21 August 2017 Herbal medicines are important for primary healthcare needs of both rural and urban communities in Zimbabwe, and among these therapies are those made from exotic plants. The aim of this study was to document ethnomedicinal uses of exotic plants in Shurugwi district, South-central Zimbabwe. Semi-structured interviews, personal observations and guided field walks were conducted between December 2014 and January 2015 with 128 participants comprising of community members (93.0 %, n = 119) and traditional healers (7.1 %, n = 9) from seven villages to obtain ethnobotanical data on medicinal uses of these plants. Data collected included local and scientific names of plants used, parts used, methods of herbal preparation and administration. A total of 26 exotic plants belonging to 15 families and 23 genera, mostly from Euphorbiaceae and Solanaceae (15.4 % each), Asteraceae (11.5 %), Apocynaceae and Myrtaceae (7.7 % each) were used to traditionally manage 21 human and four animal diseases. Majority of the plant species used (69.2 %) had one or two therapeutic uses while Bidens pilosa, Citrus lemon, Datura stramonium, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Nicotiana tabacum, Psidium guajava and Schkuhria pinnata had at least three therapeutic uses each. This study revealed that exotic plants play an important role in provision of primary healthcare to local communities in South-central Zimbabwe. Keywords: Exotic plant species, Herbal medicine, Primary health, South-central Zimbabwe IPC Int. Cl. 8 : A61K 36/00 Exotic or non-native plants with medicinal properties are receiving more attention worldwide 1-9. Exotic plant species are employed as medicines throughout the world and are now recognized as an important component of indigenous pharmacopoeia in several countries 1-9. Bennett & Prance 1 showed that exotic plants cultivated as ornamentals or food plants in South America were incorporated into traditional pharmacopoeias as herbal medicines mainly due to their use-versatility applications. Such findings were supported by Palmer 4 who demonstrated that the number of native plants used as herbal medicines in Hawaii was decreasing with time while exotic plants used as herbal medicines were increasing with time. Similar results were also obtained by Alencar et al. 5 who addressed the intercultural exchange of traditional herbal medicines due to incorporation of new knowledge, traditions and customs. Alencar et al. 5 argued that local communities incorporate exotic medicinal plants into their medical repertoire in order to diversify the local traditional medicine stock. In another study, Alencar et al. 6 argued that the composition of medicinal plants in any local community is influenced by cultural and environmental factors. These authors argued that during the history of a local community, residents usually experiment with the traditional pharmacopoeias resulting in the addition of exotic plants as sources of herbal medicines. In Zimbabwe, the indigenous knowledge on medicinal uses of native plant species is well documented 10-14, but very little is known about the medicinal uses of exotic species. Therefore, the current study was aimed at documenting indigenous knowledge associated with ethnomedicinal uses of exotic plants in Shurugwi district, South-central Zimbabwe. Materials and methods Study area, environment and geocultural situation This study was conducted in Shurugwi district (Fig. 1A&B), a semi-intensive agricultural region in the Midlands province, South-central Zimbabwe. The study area lies between S to S latitude and E to E longitude. The average annual rainfall ranges from mm and mean temperatures range from 9 ºC to 31 ºC 12. Soils are sandy loam largely derived from granitic-gneissic rocks characterised by low agricultural potential due to low fertility, water-holding capacity, low ph, and deficiencies in nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur 12. The dominant vegetation type is miombo woodland

2 72 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL. 17, NO. 1, JANUARY 2018 Fig. 1 Geographical location of the study area in relation to other major towns in Zimbabwe (A) and detailed map showing villages in which the study was undertaken (B) characterized by Brachystegia spiciformis Benth. Julbernardia globiflora (Benth.) Troupin, Hyparrhenia spp., Eragrostis spp., Heteropogon spp. and Digitaria spp. grasses 15. Research by Maroyi 12,15 revealed that residents of the study area are dependent on the natural environment for plant resources such as construction timber, firewood and fencing materials, as well as non-timber forest products (NTFPs) such as insects, mushrooms, wild fruits, leafy vegetables and medicines. Their agricultural practices are essentially subsistence in nature, with land and livestock being the primary household assets. The main cultivated crop in the study area is maize (Zea mays L.), with other grains such as sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] and millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] planted by most households as insurance against poor rains, which in some years are inadequate to produce a good maize crop 12,15. Data collection Triangulation involving more than one source of research data was the principal method used in this study 16. Ethnomedicinal data from previous surveys undertaken by the author 7,12,13,15,17 were used in planning the current study which focused on exotic plant species used as herbal medicines in Shurugwi district. Over the years, the author created a database of 115 exotic plant species that are widely used as food, medicinal, construction material and ornamental purposes in Zimbabwe 18. The current study undertaken in Chikato, Donga, Gamwa, Gundura, Hanke, Tongogara and Zvamatenga villages in Shurugwi district (Fig. 1B) was conducted between December 2014 and January A snowball research technique as described by Heckathorn 19 was used for finding, selecting and inviting participants who were knowledgeable about medicinal plants. A total of 128 participants took part in this study, with 17 community members (lay people) and at least one traditional healer per village. Structured and semistructured interviews were carried out in Shona, a language spoken by all participants. Through interviews with participants, information was collected on the local and scientific names of exotic plants used for the treatment of human and livestock ailments, vernacular names of diseases treated, plant part(s) used, as well as methods of herbal preparation and administration. During field excursions and field walks with participants, voucher specimens were collected for later identification by plant taxonomists. All voucher specimens have been deposited in the National Herbarium, Harare (SRGH). Data analysis A collection of photographs of 115 exotic plants that are known to be used as food, medicines and other uses in Zimbabwe were used to guide discussions on exotic plants used as herbal medicines in Shurugwi district. Literature review was also undertaken aimed at documenting pharmacological properties of exotic plants used as herbal medicines in the study area. Results and discussion Medicinal plant diversity This study recorded a total of 26 exotic plant species used to traditionally manage various human and livestock diseases in Shurugwi district, Zimbabwe (Table 1). Of these, 22 species (84.6 %) have escaped

3 MAROYI: ETHNOMEDICINAL USES OF EXOTIC PLANT SPECIES IN SOUTH-CENTRAL ZIMBABWE 73 Table 1 Therapeutic applications of exotic species used in traditional medicine in Shurugwi district, Zimbabwe. Veterinary ailments are marked with an asterisk (*). Species that have escaped from cultivation and regarded as weeds are marked with a hatch (#). Family, species name and voucher number Agavaceae Agave sisalana Perrine #; MA 1314 Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica L. #; MA 1321 Apocynaceae Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don #; MA 1322 Nerium oleander L.; MA 1348 Asteraceae Bidens pilosa L. #; MA 1349 Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell. #; MA 1360 Tagetes minuta L. #; MA 1317 Cucurbitaceae Cucumis anguria L. var. Anguria #; MA 1362 Vernacular name (Shona) Habit Parts used Ailment(s) treated in English and Shona, herbal preparation and administration Mukonje Shrub Leaves General body pain (marwadzoemuviri), extract taken by mouth. Mumango Tree Bark Diarrhoea (manyoka), extract taken by mouth. Chirindamatongo Herb Roots Diarrhoea (manyoka), extract taken by mouth. Oleander Shrub Leaves Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) (siki), infusion taken by mouth. Tsine Herb Roots Hypertension (BP), oral thrush (marondaemumuromo) and stomach pains (mudumbu), infusion taken by mouth. Ruhwahwa Herb Whole plant STI (siki), stomach pains (mudumbu), to cause abortion (kubvisanhumbu), infusion taken by mouth. Mbanje Herb Leaves Wounds (maronda), wounds washed with infusion. Muchacha Herb Fruits Snake repellent (kudzinganyoka), fruit pieces left around homestead. Reported biological or pharmacological activities Saponins & sterols 29 Antibacterial activity 30 Catharanthine, leurosine and vindoline responsible for hypoglycaemic effect 23 Anti-inflammatory and antibacterial activities 31 Antibacterial and antimicrobial activities 26 Anti-diarrheal, anti-emetic and antiseptic activities 23 Antimicrobial activity 32 Larvicidal activity and triterpenoids 33 Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia hirta L.#; MA Mukondehono Herb Latex Sore eyes (mazisoanorwadza), milk latex Antibacterial, antimalarial and 1350 dropped into eyes. antioxidant activities 34 Euphorbia tirucalli L. #; MA 1351 Heji Shrub Roots STI (siki), infusion taken by mouth. Antibacterial, molluscicide, antiherpetic and antimutagenic activities 35 Jatropha curcas L. #; MA Munjirimono Shrub Oil, rootsabdominal pains (marwadzoemuviri), oil 1315 rubbed on painful part, snake bites (kurumwanenyoka), dried root powder applied to bitten part. Ricinus communis L. #; MA 1337 Lamiaceae Mentha spicata L.; MA 1364 Malvaceae Sida cordifolia L. Ssp maculata (Cav.) Marais #; MA 1341 Meliaceae Melia azedarach L. #; MA 1329 Mupfuta Shrub Oil, rootssore eyes (mazisoanorwadza), oil applied on sore eyes, toothache (mazinoanorwadza), teeth washed with root decoction. Anti-inflammatory, antiparasitic and antidiarrheal activities 36 Antimicrobial activity 37 Mentha Herb Leaves Cough (kukosora) and flu (dzihwa), leaves Fatty acid methyl esters, added to tea or hot infusion taken by mouth terpenoids, glycosides and antioxidant activity 38 Nama Herb Roots Heavy menstruation (jeko), infusion taken by mouth. Analgesic, antiinflammatory and hypoglycaemic activities 39 Musiringa Tree Leaves General body pains (marwadzoemuviri) and Antioxidant, antimicrobial STI (siki), infusion taken by mouth. and anti-inflammatory activities 40 (Contd.)

4 74 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL. 17, NO. 1, JANUARY 2018 Table 1 Therapeutic applications of exotic species used in traditional medicine in Shurugwi district, Zimbabwe. Veterinary ailments are marked with an asterisk (*). Species that have escaped from cultivation and regarded as weeds are marked with a hatch (#). (Contd.) Family, species name and voucher number Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lam. #; 1367 Vernacular name (Shona) Habit Parts used from cultivation occurring as casuals, naturalized or invasive; only Capsicum annum, Mentha spicata, Nerium oleander and Prunus persica are still confined to home gardens as food plants or ornamentals 18. The majority of exotic plant species used (69.2 %) had one or two therapeutic uses, and seven species (30.8 %) had at least three uses each (Table 1). Plant species with at least three therapeutic uses were Bidens pilosa, Ailment(s) treated in English and Shona, herbal preparation and administration Reported biological or pharmacological activities Moringa Shrub Leaves, roots Diarrhoea (manyoka), leaf extract taken by Alkaloids & flavonoids; antiinflammatory, antioxidant, mouth, toothache (mazinoanorwadza), teeth washed with root decoction. antimicrobial, antifertility & anticancer activities 41 Myrtaceae Eucalyptus camaldulensis Mupuranga Tree Leaves Cough (kukosora), flu (dzihwa) and fever Antimicrobial activity 20 Dehnh. #; MA 1370 (fivha), extract drunk with Citrus lemon (L.) Burm. f. fruits and Psidium guajava L. leaves. Psidium guajava L. #; MA Mugwavha Tree Leaves Cough (kukosora), flu (dzihwa) and fever Anticough and antibacterial 1331 (fivha), extract drunk with Citrus lemon activities 22 fruits and Eucalyptus camaldulensis leaves. Rosaceae Prunus persica (L.) Mupichisi Tree Leaves Diarrhoea (manyoka), leaf extract taken by Antimicrobial and antioxidant Stokes; MA 1371 mouth. activities 42 Rutaceae Citrus limon (L.) Osback #; MA 1380 Lemoni Tree Fruits Cough (kukosora), flu (dzihwa) and fever (fivha), extract drunk with Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Psidium guajava leaves. Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L.; MA Mhiripiri Shrub Fruits *Coccidiosis (manyokaehuku), macerate 1385 given to chicken. Datura stramonium L.#; Chowa Shrub Leaves Asthma (asima) and STI (siki), infusion MA 1328 taken by mouth, cough (kukosora), smoke Nicotiana tabacum L. #; MA 1391 Solanum incanum L. #; MA 1394 Solanum lycopersicum L. #; MA 1387 inhaled while covered with a blanket. Fodya Herb Leaves Wounds (maroda), snuff applied on wounds; *endoparasites (zvishambwe), ophthalmia (maziso) and respiratory problems (dambudzikorekufema) in livestock, snuff mixed with soot (black substance produced by incomplete burning of organic matter) and given to livestock in drinking water. Nhundurwa Shrub Fruits Ringworm (chisasa), fruit sap applied on ringworm, snake bite (kurumwanenyoka), sap applied on bitten part. Mutomatisi Herb Leaves Earache (kurwadziwanenzeve), infusion dropped into the ear; *ophthalmia (maziso) in chicken, chicken made to drink leaf macerate. Verbenaceae Lantana camara L. #; MA Mbarambati Shrub Roots Headache (musoro), steam inhaled while 1327 covered with a blanket. Analgesic, intestinal mucosa protector and antiseptic 21 Hypoglycaemic activity 43 Tropane alkaloids 25 Steroidal glycosides and cytotoxic activity 24 Saponins, antibacterial & cytotoxicity activities 44 Alkaloid, steroid, flavanoid and anti-inflammatory activity 45 Ursolic and oleanoli cacids 46 Citrus lemon, Datura stramonium, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Nicotiana tabacum, Psidium guajava and Schkuhria pinnata. All these seven species are important component of indigenous pharmacopoeias throughout the world Root infusion of Bidens pilosa was used as remedy for hypertension, oral thrush and stomach pain. A mixture of Citrus lemon fruits, Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Psidium guajava leaves was used as cough, flu and

5 MAROYI: ETHNOMEDICINAL USES OF EXOTIC PLANT SPECIES IN SOUTH-CENTRAL ZIMBABWE 75 fever remedy. An infusion of Schkuhria pinnata was used as remedy for sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and stomach pain and also as an abortifacient. Leaf infusion of Datura stramonium was used as herbal medicine for asthma and STI, while smoke of the same species was inhaled while the patient was covered with a blanket as a cough remedy. Nicotiana tabacum snuff was applied on wounds, and snuff mixed with soot and water was given to livestock as remedy for endoparasites, ophthalmia and respiratory problems. Dicotyledons were dominant with 25 plant species (96.2 %) and monocotyledon constituted 3.8 %. These medicinal plants were distributed among 15 families and 23 genera. Overall, the majority (57.7 %) of plants used as traditional medicines in Shurugwi district are from five botanical families (Table 2) with Euphorbiaceae and Solanaceae (four species each), followed by Asteraceae (three species) and Apocynaceae and Myrtaceae (two species each). Euphorbiaceae and Solanaceae families have the highest number of exotic species used as herbal medicines in Shurugwi district probably because they are large families characterized by several species, thus are more likely to be exploited medicinally. The rest of the families were represented by one species Table 2 Plant families of exotic species used as herbal medicines in Shurugwi district, south-central Zimbabwe Family No. of medicinal % plants Euphorbiaceae Solanaceae Asteraceae Apocynaceae Myrtaceae Agavaceae, Anacardiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Lamiaceae, Malvaceae, Meliaceae, Moringaceae, Rosaceae, Rutaceae, Verbenaceae each (Table 2). Similar studies carried in Kenya 3 and South Africa 8 found the majority of alien plants used as herbal medicines to be from Apocynaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae and Solanaceae. Growth habit and parts used Herbs and shrubs (38.5 % each) were the primary sources of herbal medicines used in Shurugwi District (Fig. 2A). In a similar study carried out in Kenya, Njoroge & Bussman 3 found herbs (65 %) to be dominant life forms followed by shrubs (32 %) and trees (3 %). While, Semenya et al. 8 found the majority of exotic herbal medicines used in South Africa to be trees (45.7 %) followed by herbs (37.1 %) and shrubs (17.1 %). The leaves were the most frequently used plant parts (46.2 %), followed by roots (26.9 %), fruits (15.4 %), oil (7.7 %), bark, latex and whole plant (3.8 % each) (Fig. 2B). Ailments and diseases treated A total of 21 human and 4 animal ailments were treated with exotic plant species in Shurugwi district (Table 1). Gastro-intestinal disorders, sexually transmitted infections, cold, cough and fever were treated with the highest number of exotic plant species (Table 1). Gastro-intestinal disorders, particularly cholera, diarrhoea and dysentery are a major concern not only in Shurugwi district but the whole country 13 and in Mozambique where dysentery and cholera usually result in high mortality rate if not treated promptly 27. Therefore, their treatment with higher number of species in the present study was expected. Sexually transmitted infections are a major public health concern in developing countries with their transmission rate regarded as one of the highest in the world 28. Sexually transmitted infections are one of the most common reasons for people to use herbal medicines and visit traditional healers in Zimbabwe Fig. 2 Characteristics of exotic plants used as herbal medicines in Shurugwi district, Zimbabwe. (A) Growth form habit represented in pie diagram and (B) plant parts used represented in bar chart.

6 76 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL. 17, NO. 1, JANUARY 2018 Literature based proof of biological and pharmacological activities of documented species All the exotic plants used as traditional medicines in Shurugwi district, have proven biological and pharmacological activities (Table 1). The presence of these active ingredients in herbal medicines is directly linked to their ability to prevent or treat ailments. The biological and pharmacological activities of the documented plants corroborate their usage as herbal medicines. The identification of biologically active compounds in herbal medicines needs to be interpreted in the light of the traditional uses of the plants as well as herbal medicine preparation and dosage 47. Most of the documented activities, mainly the antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antiparasitic and analgesic properties; and the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolic, saponins and tannins confirm the different applications of extracts obtained from the exotic plant species that are used as herbal medicines. Conclusion This study has revealed that exotic plant species play an important role in the provision of primary healthcare to local communities in Shurugwi district. This is reflected in diversity of plant species used as well as human and livestock diseases treated. Importantly, most of the traditional applications of these species as medicines are well supported by pharmacological evaluations. Results of this study further revealed that local communities in the study area have enriched their indigenous pharmacopoeia through utilization of exotic and weedy plant species as herbal medicines. The widespread use of exotic plants as herbal medicines in South-central Zimbabwe is mainly due to their medicinal value and the fact that they are readily available in home gardens and adjacent areas. The documented rich ethnobotanical knowledge and repository of medicinal plants reinforces the need for further evaluation of the bioactive compounds responsible for the in vitro and in vivo pharmacological effects and their mode of action. This will open new opportunities to develop pharmaceuticals based on herbal medicines. Acknowledgement The author is grateful to local people and traditional healers in Shurugwi district, Zimbabwe for sharing their knowledge on exotic plants used as herbal medicines. The author would like to express his gratitude to the National Research Foundation (NRF) and Govan Mbeki Research and Development Centre (GMRDC), University of Fort Hare for financial support to conduct this research. 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