Chapter I. Communication is culture. The gamut of science is best captured by. the concept of a well articulated science communication system in which

Transcription

1 1 Chapter I 1. Introduction Communication is culture. The gamut of science is best captured by the concept of a well articulated science communication system in which participating scholars and scientists form the carrying nodes. Scholarly communication is exceedingly important to the understanding of the genesis and evolution of disciplines. Within and outside the academy, disciplines have emerged in diverse fields of cultural and intellectual endeavors. Since the advent of organized academic activities, disciplines have become spheres of individual and collective activity in science, technology, the humanities, and the social sciences. Societies, specialized research institutes, university departments, and conferences have emerged attesting to the continuous social formation of these activities. Often, publications include both monographs and journals, yet increasingly journals constitute the majority of published scholarship. Journals emerge as vehicles of communication between scholars and scientists who, through formal and informal acculturation, accept disciplinary consensus as expressed in the journals pages. This implicit acceptance of the major tenets of a given discipline permits communities of like-minded scholars and researchers to emerge.

2 2 1.1 Drug Discovery in Medicinal Plants The study Area Herb is a plant or plant part used for its scent, flavor or therapeutic properties. Herbal medicine products are dietary supplements that people take to improve their health. Many herbs have been used for a long time for claimed health benefits. They are sold as tablets, capsules, powders, teas, extracts and fresh or dried plants. However, some can cause health problems, some are not effective and some may interact with other drugs that is taken. 1.2 What is herbal medicine? Herbal medicine -- also called botanical medicine or phytomedicine - - refers to using a plant's seeds, berries, roots, leaves, bark, or flowers for medicinal purposes. Herbalism has a long tradition of use outside of conventional medicine. It is becoming more mainstream as improvements in analysis and quality control along with advances in clinical research show the value of herbal medicine in the treating and preventing disease. What is the history of herbal medicine? Plants had been used for medicinal purposes long before recorded history. Ancient Chinese and Egyptian papyrus writings describe medicinal uses for plants. Indigenous cultures (such as African and Native American) used herbs in their healing rituals, while others developed traditional

3 3 medical systems (such as Ayurveda and Traditional Chinese Medicine) in which herbal therapies were used. Researchers found that people in different parts of the world tended to use the same or similar plants for the same purposes. In the early 19th century, when chemical analysis first became available, scientists began to extract and modify the active ingredients from plants. Later, chemists began making their own version of plant compounds, and over time, the use of herbal medicines declined in favor of drugs. Recently, the World Health Organization estimated that 80% of people worldwide rely on herbal medicines for some part of their primary health care. In Germany, about plant-based medicines are available and are prescribed by some 70% of German physicians. In the last 20 years in the United States, public dissatisfaction with the cost of prescription medications, combined with an interest in returning to natural or organic remedies, has led to an increase in herbal medicine use. 1.3 How do herbs work? In many cases, scientists aren't sure what specific ingredient in a particular herb works to treat a condition or illness. Whole herbs contain many ingredients, and they may work together to produce a beneficial effect. Many factors determine how effective an herb will be. For example,

4 4 the type of environment (climate, bugs, soil quality) in which a plant grew will affect it, as will how and when it was harvested and processed. 1.4 How are herbs used? The use of herbal supplements has increased dramatically over the past 30 years. Herbal supplements are classified as dietary supplements by the U.S. Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of That means herbal supplements -- unlike prescription drugs -- can be sold without being tested to prove that they are safe and effective. However, herbal supplements must be made according to good manufacturing practices. The most commonly used herbal supplements in the U.S. include echinacea (Echinacea purpurea and related species), St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum), ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba), garlic (Allium sativum), saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), ginseng (Panax ginseng, or Asian ginseng; and Panax quinquefolius, or American ginseng), goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis), valerian (Valeriana officinalis), chamomile (Matricaria recutita), feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium), ginger (Zingiber officinale), evening primrose (Oenothera biennis), and milk thistle (Silybum marianum). Often, herbs may be used together because the combination is more effective and may have fewer side effects. Health care providers must take

5 5 many factors into account when recommending herbs, including the species and variety of the plant, the plant's habitat, how it was stored and processed, and whether or not there are contaminants (including heavy metals and pesticides). 1.5 What is herbal medicine good for? Herbal medicine is used to treat many conditions, such as asthma, eczema, premenstrual syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, migraine, menopausal symptoms, chronic fatigue, and irritable bowel syndrome, among others. Herbal supplements are best taken under the guidance of a trained health care provider. Be sure to consult with your doctor or pharmacist before taking any herbs. Some common herbs and their uses are discussed below. Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) has been used in traditional medicine to treat circulatory disorders and enhance memory. Although not all studies agree, ginkgo may be especially effective in treating dementia (including Alzheimer's disease) and intermittent claudication (poor circulation in the legs). It also shows promise for enhancing memory in older adults. Laboratory studies have shown that ginkgo improves blood circulation by dilating blood vessels and reducing the stickiness of blood platelets. By the same token, this means ginkgo may also increase the effect of some blood-thinning medications,

6 6 including aspirin. People taking blood-thinning medications should ask their doctor before using ginkgo. Kava kava (Piper methysticum) is said to elevate mood, well-being, and contentment, and produce a feeling of relaxation. Several studies have found that kava may be useful in the treatment of anxiety, insomnia, and related nervous disorders. However, there is serious concern that kava may cause liver damage. It's not clear whether the kava itself caused liver damage in a few people or whether it was taking kava in combination with other drugs or herbs. It's also not clear whether kava is dangerous at previously recommended doses, or only at higher doses. Some countries have taken kava off the market. It remains available in the United States, but the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a consumer advisory in March of 2002 regarding the "rare" but potential risk of liver failure associated with kava-containing products. Saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) is used by more than 2 million men in the United States for the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), a non-cancerous enlargement of the prostate gland. A number of studies suggest that the herb is effective for treating symptoms, including too-frequent urination, having trouble starting or maintaining urination, and needing to urinate during the night. But a well-conducted study published in the February 9, 2006 edition of

7 7 the New England Journal of Medicine found that saw palmetto was no better than placebo in relieving the signs and symptoms of BPH. St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum) is well known for its antidepressant effects. In general, most studies have shown that St. John's wort may be an effective treatment for mild to moderate depression, and has fewer side effects than most other prescription antidepressants. But the herb interacts with a wide variety of medications, including birth control pills, so it is important to take it only under the guidance of a health care provider. Valerian (Valeriana officinalis) is a popular alternative to commonly prescribed medications for sleep problems because it is considered to be both safe and gentle. Some studies bear this out, although not all have found valerian to be effective. Unlike many prescription sleeping pills, valerian may have fewer side effects such as morning drowsiness. Echinacea preparations (from Echinacea purpurea and other Echinacea species) may improve the body's natural immunity. Echinacea is one of the most commonly used herbal products, but studies are mixed as to whether it can help prevent or treat colds. A meta-analysis of 14 clinical studies examining the effect of echinacea on the incidence and duration of the common cold found that echinacea supplements decreased the odds of getting a cold by 58%. It also shortened the duration of a cold by 1.4 days.

8 8 Buying standardized herbal supplements helps ensure you will get the right dose and the effects similar to human clinical trials. Ask your doctor or pharmacist about which herbal supplements are the best choice for your health concerns. 1.6 Is there anything I should watch out for? Used correctly, herbs can help treat a variety of conditions and in some cases may have fewer side effects than some conventional medications. But because they are unregulated, herbal products are often mislabeled and may contain additives and contaminants that aren' t listed on the label. Some herbs may cause allergic reactions or interact with conventional drugs, and some are toxic if used improperly or at high doses. Taking herbs on your own increases your risk, so it is important to consult your doctor or pharmacist before taking herbal medicines. Some examples of adverse reactions from certain popular herbs are described below. St. John's wort can cause your skin to be more sensitive to the sun's ultraviolet rays, and may cause an allergic reaction, stomach upset, fatigue, and restlessness. Clinical studies have found that St. John's wort also interferes with the effectiveness of many drugs, including the blood thinner warfarin (Couamdin), protease inhibitors for HIV, birth control pills, certain asthma drugs, and many other medications. In addition, St. John's wort should not be taken with

9 9 prescribed antidepressant medication. The FDA has issued a public health advisory concerning many of these interactions. Kava kava has been linked to liver toxicity. Kava has been taken off the market in several countries because of liver toxicity. Valerian may cause sleepiness, and in some people it may even have the unexpected effect of overstimulating instead of sedating. Garlic, ginkgo, feverfew, and ginger, among other herbs, may increase the risk of bleeding. Evening primrose (Oenothera biennis) may increase the risk of seizures in people who have seizure disorders. Some herbal supplements, especially those imported from Asian countries, may contain high levels of heavy metals, including lead, mercury, and cadmium. It is important to purchase herbal supplements from reputable manufacturers to ensure quality. Talk to your health care provider for more information. 1.7 Who is using herbal medicine? Nearly one-third of Americans use herbs. Unfortunately, a study in the New England Journal of Medicine found that nearly 70% of people taking herbal medicines (most of whom were well educated and had a higher-than-average income) were reluctant tell their doctors that they used complementary and alternative medicine. Many herbs can interact with

10 10 prescription medications and cause unwanted or dangerous reactions. Be sure to consult your doctor before trying any herbal products. 1.8 What is the future of herbal medicine? In some countries in Europe -- unlike the U.S. -- herbs are classified as drugs and are regulated. The German Commission E, an expert medical panel, actively researches their safety and effectiveness. While still not widely accepted, herbal medicine is being taught more in medical schools and pharmacy schools. More health care providers are learning about the positive and potentially negative effects of using herbal medicines to help treat health conditions. Some health care providers, including doctors and pharmacists, are trained in herbal medicine. They can help people create treatment plans that use herbs, conventional medications and lifestyle changes to promote health. Fossil records date human use of plants as medicines at least to the Middle Paleolithic age some 60,000 years ago 1. From that point the development of traditional medical systems incorporating plants as a means of therapy can be traced back only as far as recorded documents of their likeness. However, the value of these systems is much more than a significant anthropologic or archeologic fact. Their value is as a methodology of medicinal agents, which, according to the World Health 1 Solecki R. Shanidar IV, a Neanderthal flower burial in northern Iraq. Science 190: (1975).

11 11 Organization (WHO), almost 65% of the world s population have incorporated into their primary modality of health care 2. The goals of using plants as sources of therapeutic agents are a. to isolate bioactive compounds for direct use as drugs, e.g., digoxin, digitoxin, morphine, reserpine, taxol, vinblastine, vincristine; b. to produce bioactive compounds of novel or known structures as lead compounds for semisynthesis to produce patentable entities of higher activity and/or lower toxicity, e.g., metformin, nabilone, oxycodon (and other narcotic analgesics), taxotere, teniposide, verapamil, and amiodarone, which are based, respectively, on galegine, 9- tetrahydrocannabinol, morphine, taxol, podophyllotoxin, khellin, and khellin; c. to use agents as pharmacologic tools, e.g., lysergic acid diethylamide, mescaline, yohimbine; and d. to use the whole plant or part of it as a herbal remedy, e.g., cranberry, echinacea, feverfew, garlic, ginkgo biloba, St. John s wort, saw palmetto. The number of higher plant species (angiosperms and gymnosperms) on this planet is estimated at 250,000 3, with a lower level at 2 Farnsworth NR, Akerele O, Bingel AS, Soejarto DD, Guo Z. Medicinal plants in therapy. Bull W H O 63: (1985). 3 Ayensu ES, DeFilipps RA. Endangered and Threatened Plants of the United States. Washington, DC:Smithsonian Institution, 1978

12 12 215,000 4 and an upper level as high as 500,000. Of these, only about 6% have been screened for biologic activity and a reported 15% have been evaluated phytochemically (8). With high throughput screening methods becoming more advanced and available, these numbers will change, but the primary discriminator in evaluating one plant species versus another is the matter of approach to finding leads. There are some broad starting points to selecting and obtaining plant material of potential therapeutic interest. In the fields of medicine, biotechnology and pharmacology, drug discovery is the process by which drugs are discovered and/or designed. In the past most drugs have been discovered either by identifying the active ingredient from traditional remedies or by serendipitous discovery. A new approach has been to understand how disease and infection are controlled at the molecular and physiological level and to target specific entities based on this knowledge. The process of drug discovery involves the identification of candidates, synthesis, characterization, screening, and assays for therapeutic efficacy. Once a compound has shown its value in these tests, it will begin the process of drug development prior to clinical trials. 4 Cronquist A. An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants. New York:Columbia University Press, 1981.

13 13 Despite advances in technology and understanding of biological systems, drug discovery is still a lengthy, "expensive, difficult, and inefficient process" with low rate of new therapeutic discovery. The trend this discipline can be assessed by measuring the literature on that subject. Bibliometrics is an important tool to measure the growth or the decline and the diversification of a discipline. Pritchard used the term Bibliometrics in 1969 to describe all Studies, which quantify the process of written communication. Fairthorne designed Bibliometrics as the quantitative treatment of the properties of recorded discourse and behaviors pertaining to it. Bibliometrics is the application of Mathematical and Statistical methods to books and other media of communication. It has recently drawn the attention of serious workers in Library and Information Science, both from theoretical and practical contents. Theoretically it is the quantitative characterization of setting forth of probabilistically true ideas about selected phenomena. Nowadays Bibliometrics has attained sophistication and complexity having national, international and interdisciplinary character.

14 ORIGIN OF BIBLIOMETRICS The term Bibliometrics was first coined by Pritchard in 1969 and its usage and practice can be traced back to the second decade of this century. In 1923 Hulme 5 conducted a study entitled Statistical analysis of the history of Science. His analysis was based on the original entries in the seventeen sections of the English International Catalogue of Scientific Literature. Gross and Gross 6 reported used the method of counting and analyzing the citations appended to articles in the journal of the American Chemical Society and produced a list of journals of Importance in Chemical Education. The prominent work in Bibliometrics was of Bradford7 in 1934 on the distribution and in Lubrication research. This research found the backbone of the theoretical foundation of the Bibliometrics study known as the Bradford s Law of scattering. De Solla Price8 published some observations of exponential rate growth in a number of scientific journals. 5 Hulme, E Windhan. Statistical Bibliography in relation to the growth of modern civilization. London: Butler and Tanner Grafton, p.9 6 Gross, P L K and Gross, F M. College libraries and chemical education. Science Pp Bradford, S C. Source of information of specific subjects. Engineering Pp Solla Price, D J de. General theory of Bibliometrics and other cumulative advantage process. Journal of American Society for Information Science, 27:5/ Pp

15 DEFINITIONS OF BIBLIOMETRICS The world Bibliometrics is derived from biblion and metrics where biblion means books and metrics indicates measurement. Metron and Garfied (1963) defined it as the field of inquiry given over to the analyzers of science and scientific field. Pritchard (1969) defined it as the application of mathematical and statistical methods to books and other media of Communication. Fairthrone (1969) defined the term as, the quantitative treatment of the properties of recorded discourse and behaviour pertaining to it. The British Standard Glossary of Documentation of terms (1976) explained bibliometrics as, the study of the use of documents and patterns of publication in which mathematical and statistical methods have been applied:, which is basically similar to Pritchard s definition. Howkins (1977) interpreted bibliometrics as quantitative analysis of the bibliographic features of a body of literature. Nicholas and Ritchire (1978) in their book entitled literature on bibliometrics stated that bibliometrics provide information about the structure of knowledge and how it is communicated? According to Broadus (1987), Bibliometrics is the quantitative study of physical published units or bibliographic units or of surrogates of either: Sengupta (1990) viewed bibliometrics as Organization, classification, and

16 16 quantitative, evaluation of publication patterns of all macro and micro communications along with their authorship by mathematical and statistical calculi BIBLIOMETRICS: SCOPE Bibliometrics is the technical name for `a range of analytical methods using Information-quo-information found organised in bibliographic description of reading materials such as books, periodical articles, reports, patents, software, designs, prototypes, and blueprints to develop descriptive statistics, multidimensional analyses, and graphical representations of the output of science. Bibliometrics is often used to Clarify and assist in the analysis and formulation of science policy by highlighting the networks of players or subjects that make up scientific research; Providing strategic analysis of the relative position of research performers; Sketching profiles of the activities and performance of individual centers; Graphically presenting studies of strategic or innovative subjects. Publication counts, involving counting of scientific publications published by a researcher or a research group;

17 17 Citation counts, involving identifying the number of times a specific article is cited in other scientific journal publications; these measures are considered to address questions of quality, influence, and the transfer of knowledge; Co-citation analysis, identifying pairs or groups of articles that are cited together in other articles or publications; from these pairs or groups of articles a 'cognitive structure' can be derived, providing information on the direction and flow of scientific thought; Co-word analysis, involving assigning keywords to a paper or article by a professional reader; papers which have the same keywords and sets of words are linked to each other via a clustering technique; Scientific mapping, involving developing a visual model or 'map' of the realm of scientific fields representing the structure of literature output of particular scientific fields." Bibliometric studies fall mainly into two broad groups -- those describing the characteristics or features of literature (descriptive studies), and those examining the relationships formed between components of literature (behavioural studies, sometimes referred to as citations studies, but not restricted to them). The descriptive studies are probably the most easily understood, and can be thought of as resembling in many ways population census. Both have to provide comprehensive and accurate data about rapidly

18 18 changing population in one case of people and in other of literature. Literature descriptions are assembled from the bibliographic study those that provide data on the condition or character of the literature as a whole. There is, therefore, an important distinction between bibliographic and bibliometric data FROM BIBLIOMETRICS TO SCIENTOMETRICS The terms bibliometrics and scientometrics have been introduced almost simultaneously by Pritchard and by Nalimov and Mulchenko in While Pritchard explained the term bibliometrics as "the application of mathematical and statistical methods to books and other media of communication" (Pritchard, 1969), Nalimov and Mulchenko defined scientometrics as "the application of those quantitative methods which are dealing with the analysis of science viewed as an information process" (Nalimov and Mulchenko, 1969). According to these interpretations, scientometrics is restricted to the measurement of science communication, whereas bibliometrics is designed to deal with more general information processes. Thus the term Scientometrics originated as a Russian term for the application of quantitative methods to the history of science, but its scope and objectives have widened considerably. Scientometrics is a wideranging field with vague boundaries. It is generic term for a system of

19 19 knowledge, which endeavors to study the Scientific and Technological system, using a variety of approaches within the areas of Science and Technology Studies (STS). According to Pouris 9, "Scientometrics is for science what econometrics is for economics". Both disciplines attempt to study social phenomena with the rigour provided by the scientific method. The founding father of Scientometrics, de Solla Price, had envisioned Scientometrics to become a hard science like econometrics. This vision is becoming true. Scientometrics followed the trajectory of econometrics in the use of quantitative data, concepts and models and extensive use of mathematical and statistical techniques of modeling and data analysis. In terms of methodology, Scientometric techniques can be classified into two categories: one-dimensional (or scalar) and two-dimensional (or relational) techniques. One-dimensional techniques are based on direct counts (or occurrences) and graphical representation of specific bibliometric entities (e.g., publications and patents) or particular dataelements in these items such as citations, keywords or addresses. Onedimensional techniques are used to generate scalar indicators for monitoring the state-of-the-s&t system. Scalar indicators are increasingly 9 POURIS A. IS SCIENTOMETRICS IN A CRISIS 1994 SCIENTOMETRICS 30 (2-3): ?

20 20 being exploited for science policy purposes-both as descriptive and diagnostic tools. The two-dimensional techniques are based on co-occurrences of specific data-elements such as number of times the keywords, classification codes, citations and addresses are mentioned together. Multidimensional statistical techniques-continuous and discontinuous are being used to represent scientific universes. Discontinuous methods such as classifications are widely used to scale down the level of observations throughout the fractal structure of science and technology networks. Continuous methods, such as multidimensional scaling, allow the representation of the relational (or structural) features of the data in the forms of maps. Keyword or classifications codes are content indicators of the knowledge conveyed of the documents. Clusters are indicators of the topics or centers of interest contained in the documents. Maps are strategic indicators of the relevant positions of the topics in the knowledge space covered by the documents SCIENTOMETRICS FOR DECISION MAKERS Scientometrics can be used for Monitoring the health of science Evaluating the effectiveness of national science policies and Strategic analysis

21 21 Identifying transient as well as continuant authors 1.14 HEALTH OF SCIENCE A study commissioned by the Royal Society, London, indicates that the concept of Health of science is in practice reduced to measure the performance and identifying the national strengths and weakness on a comparative basis. This essentially involves benchmarking of the S&T system. A group of different countries can be selected as comparators. Here some crucial issues are: Is a country doing more or less research in a particular field or subfield as compared to other as compared to other nations? Is it doing better than others is it doing more research in a particular field compared to some other field, or it is doing better in one field compared to another? The strengths and weakness of a country or a region by computing Activity Index (AI) and Attractivity Index (AAI) (or Citability Index) from the counts of publications and citations (or impact factors of journals (after normalisation) in which the articles are published). AI = The country s shared in world s publications output in a given field / The country s shared in world s publications output in all science fields

22 22 AAI = The country s shared in attracted by publications in a given field/ The country s shared in attracted by publications in all science fields To assess the research performance in a worldwide perspective, it is not sufficient to use indicators based on publication or citation counts. The phase of the development of scientific fields should also take in to account. The development phase can be classified three categories, depending upon the rate of increase in publication activity: Hot Topics: Significant increase in publication output worldwide Cold Topics: Significant decrease in publication output worldwide Stable Topics: No Significant increase or decrease in publication output worldwide In general, if a country publishes much below the world average on a hot topic, it has two alternative implications: The country has failed to pick up new developments, and it would be worthwhile to investigate the reasons for this. The country has wisely resisted jumping the bandwagon on a passing fad. For stable topics, equal or above world average activity is a potential sign of healthy development, while significantly lower activity indicates a

23 23 weakness. However, a strong increase over a time in a country s publications in on a stable topic may indicate that either a new valuable development has been initiated (which should show up in a relatively high impact scores in citation analysis) or that too much effort is committed to the run-of-the-mill research. For cold topics, a significantly higher activity indicates that a country is putting too much effort on a topic, where scientific payoff is lean. Occasionally, a higher activity signifies a breakthrough, which should show up in a relatively high citation rates. The health of science also depends upon transience and renewal of the scientific population. This is an implication that Scientometrics is an important tool to ascertain the health of a discipline/subject and hence this is used to analyse the structure of the subject Drug Discovery in Medicinal Plants.