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1 Part I General Aspects 1 Systematics Biology of Mosquitoes Oviposition Embryonic Development Hatching Larvae Pupae Adults Emergence Mating Dispersal and Host-Seeking Behaviour Feeding Survival During Dry Seasons and Hibernation Egg Stage Larval Stage Adult Stage Medical Importance of Mosquitoes Malaria Arboviruses Togaviridae (Alphavirus) Flaviviridae (Flavivirus) Banyaviridae (Bunyavirus) Filariasis Future Perspectives and Conclusions Mosquito Research Techniques Sampling Mosquito Eggs Anopheles Eggs Egg Rafts Aedes/Ochlerotatus Eggs Eggs in Artificial Oviposition Sites Sampling Mosquito Larvae and Pupae xvii

2 xviii Sampling Adult Mosquitoes in the Field Sampling Flying Mosquitoes Adult Mosquito Outdoor Resting Catches Adult Mosquito Indoor Catches Bait Catches Adult Mosquito Traps Mark-Release-Recapture Techniques Laboratory Based Research Techniques Rearing Mosquitoes Preserving Mosquitoes Mosquito Blood Meal Identification Methods for Measuring the Physiological Stage Morphological and Taxonomic Techniques Assessing the Activity of Insecticides and Repellents on Mosquitoes Insecticide Susceptibility Testing Assays of Insecticide Deposits on Surfaces (e.g. Walls or Nets) Assays of Efficacy of ULV Insecticide Treatments in the Field Assays of Efficacy of Mosquito Repellents Conclusion Morphology of Mosquitoes Adults Head Thorax Abdomen Larvae Head Thorax Abdomen Pupae Part II I dentification Keys; Morphology; Ecology and Distribution of European Species 6 Key to Female Mosquitoes Genera Genus Anopheles Genera Aedes and Ochlerotatus Genus Culex Genus Culiseta Genus Coquillettidia Key to Male Mosquitoes... Genera Genus Anopheles Genera Aedes and Ochlerotatus

3 xix Genus Culex Genus Culiseta Genus Coquillettidia Key to Mosquito Fourth Instar Larvae... Genera Genus Anopheles Genera Aedes and Ochlerotatus Genus Culex Genus Culiseta Genus Coquillettidia Subfamily Anophelinae Genus Anopheles (Meigen) Subgenus Anopheles (Meigen)... Anopheles algeriensis (Theobald 1903)... Anopheles Claviger Complex... Anopheles claviger s.s. (Meigen 1804)... Anopheles petragnani (Del Vecchio 1939)... Anopheles hyrcanus (Pallas 1771)... Anopheles Maculipennis Complex... Anopheles atroparvus (Van Thiel 1927)... Anopheles beklemishevi (Stegnii and Kabanova 1976)... Anopheles labranchiae (Falleroni 1926)... Anopheles maculipennis s.s. (Meigen 1818)... Anopheles melanoon (Hackett 1934)... Anopheles messeae (Falleroni 1926)... Anopheles sacharovi (Favre 1903)... Anopheles subalpinus (Hackett and Lewis 1935)... Anopheles marteri (Senevet and Prunelle 1927)... Anopheles plumbeus (Stephens 1828) Subgenus Cellia (Theobald 1902)... Anopheles cinereus (Theobald 1901)... Anopheles cinereus hispaniola (Theobald 1903)... Anopheles multicolor (Cambouliu 1902)... Anopheles sergentii (Theobald 1907)... Anopheles superpictus (Grassi 1899) Subfamily Culicinae Genus Aedes (Meigen) Subgenus Aedes (Meigen)... Aedes cinereus (Meigen 1818)... Aedes geminus (Peus 1970)... Aedes rossicus (Dolbeskin, Gorickaja and Mitrofanova 1930) Subgenus Aedimorphus (Theobald)... Aedes vexans (Meigen 1830) Subgenus Fredwardsius (Reinert)... Aedes vittatus (Bigot 1861)

4 xx Subgenus Stegomyia (Theobald)... Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus 1762)... Aedes albopictus (Skuse 1895)... Aedes cretinus (Edwards 1921) Genus Ochlerotatus (Lynch Arribalzaga) Subgenus Finlaya (Theobald)... Ochlerotatus echinus (Edwards 1920)... Ochlerotatus geniculatus (Olivier 1791) Subgenus Ochlerotatus Lynch Arribalzaga... Ochlerotatus annulipes (Meigen 1830)... Ochlerotatus behningi (Martini 1926)... Ochlerotatus berlandi (Seguy 1921)... Ochlerotatus cantans (Meigen 1818)... Ochlerotatus Caspius Complex... Ochlerotatus caspius (Pallas 1771)... Ochlerotatus cataphylla (Dyar 1916)... Ochlerotatus Communis Complex... Ochlerotatus communis (De Geer 1776)... Ochlerotatus cyprius (Ludlow 1920)... Ochlerotatus Detritus Complex... Ochlerotatus detritus (Haliday 1833)... Ochlerotatus diantaeus (Howard, Dyar and Knab 1913)... Ochlerotatus dorsalis (Meigen 1830)... Ochlerotatus Excrucians Complex... Ochlerotatus euedes (Howard, Dyar and Knab 1913)... Ochlerotatus excrucians (Walker 1856)... Ochlerotatus surcoufi (Theobald 1912)... Ochlerotatus flavescens (Müller 1764)... Ochlerotatus hexodontus (Dyar 1916)... Ochlerotatus hungaricus (Mihalyi 1955)... Ochlerotatus impiger (Walker 1848)... Ochlerotatus intrudens (Dyar 1919)... Ochlerotatus leucomelas (Meigen 1804)... Ochlerotatus Mariae Complex... Ochlerotatus mariae (Sergent and Sergent 1903)... Ochlerotatus zammitii (Theobald 1903)... Ochlerotatus mercurator (Dyar 1920)... Ochlerotatus nigrinus (Eckstein 1918)... Ochlerotatus nigripes (Zetterstedt 1838)... Ochlerotatus pionips (Dyar 1919)... Ochlerotatus pulcritarsis (Rondani 1872)... Ochlerotatus pullatus (Coquillett 1904)... Ochlerotatus punctodes (Dyar 1922)... Ochlerotatus punctor (Kirby 1837)... Ochlerotatus riparius (Dyar and Knab 1907)... Ochlerotatus sticticus (Meigen 1838) Subgenus Rusticoidus (Shevchenko and Prudkina)... Ochlerotatus lepidonotus (Edwards 1920)... Ochlerotatus quasirusticus (Torres Canamares 1951)

5 xxi Ochlerotatus refiki (Medschid 1928)... Ochlerotatus rusticus (Rossi 1790)... Ochlerotatus subdiversus (Martini 1926)... Genus Culex Linnaeus Subgenus Barraudius (Edwards)... Culex modestus (Ficalbi 1889)... Culex pusillus (Macquart 1850) Subgenus Culex (Linnaeus)... Culex brumpti (Galliard 1931)... Culex laticinctus (Edwards 1913)... Culex mimeticus (Noe 1899)... Culex perexiguus (Theobald 1903)... Culex Pipiens Complex... Culex pipiens pipiens (Linnaeus 1758)... Culex pipiens pipiens biotype molestus (Forskal 1775)... Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus (Say 1832)... Culex torrentium (Martini 1925)... Culex theileri (Theobald 1903) Subgenus Maillotia (Theobald)... Culex hortensis (Ficalbi 1889) Subgenus Neoculex (Dyar)... Culex impudicus (Ficalbi 1890)... Culex martinii (Medschid 1930)... Culex territans (Walker 1856)... Genus Culiseta Felt Subgenus Allotheobaldia (Broelemann)... Culiseta longiareolata (Marcquart 1838) Subgenus Culicella (Felt)... Culiseta fumipennis (Stephens 1825)... Culiseta litorea (Shute 1928)... Culiseta morsitans (Theobald 1901)... Culiseta ochroptera (Peus 1935) Subgenus Culiseta (Felt)... Culiseta alaskaensis (Ludlow 1906)... Culiseta annulata (Schrank 1776)... Culiseta bergrothi (Edwards 1921)... Culiseta glaphyroptera (Schiner 1864)... Culiseta subochrea (Edwards 1921)... Genus Coquillettidia (Dyar) Subgenus Coquillettidia (Dyar)... Coquillettidia buxtoni (Edwards 1923)... Coquillettidia richiardii (Ficalbi 1889)... Genus Orthopodomyia (Theobald)... Orthopodomyia pulcripalpis (Rondani 1872)... Genus Uranotaenia (Lynch Arribalzaga) Subgenus Pseudoficalbia (Theobald)... Uranotaenia unguiculata (Edwards 1913)

6 xxii Part III Identification Keys, Morphology, Ecology, and Distribution of Important Vector and Nuisance Species World-Wide 11 Africa Key to African Female Mosquitoes Species Description... Anopheles (Cellia) funestus (Giles 1900)... Anopheles Gambiae Complex... Anopheles (Cellia) gambiae s.s. (Giles 1902)... Anopheles (Cellia) arabiensis (Patton 1905)... Anopheles (Cellia) quadriannulatus s.l. (Theobald 1911)... Anopheles (Cellia) bwambae (White 1985)... Anopheles (Cellia) melas (Theobald 1903)... Anopheles (Cellia) merus (Dönitz 1902)... Anopheles (Cellia) pharoensis (Theobald 1901)... Culex (Culex) antennatus (Becker 1903)... Culex (Culex) univittatus (Theobald 1901)... Mansonia (Mansonioides) africana (Theobald 1901)... Mansonia (Mansonioides) uniformis (Theobald 1901) Asia Key to Asian Female Mosquitoes Species Description... Anopheles (Anopheles) lesteri (Baisas and Hu 1936)... Anopheles (Anopheles) sinensis (Wiedemann 1828)... Anopheles (Cellia) culicifacies (Giles 1901)... Anopheles (Cellia) dirus (Peyton and Harrison 1979)... Anopheles (Cellia) flavirostris (Ludlow 1914)... Anopheles (Cellia) fluviatilis (James 1902)... Anopheles (Cellia) maculatus (Theobald 1901)... Anopheles (Cellia) minimus (Theobald 1901)... Anopheles (Cellia) stephensi (Liston 1901)... Anopheles (Cellia) sundaicus (Rodenwaldt 1925)... Culex (Culex) tritaeniorhynchus (Giles 1901) Australia Key to Australian Female Mosquitoes Species Description... Anopheles (Cellia) farauti s.l. (Laveran 1902)... Ochlerotatus (Mucidus) alternans (Westwood 1835)... Ochlerotatus (Finlaya) notoscriptus (Skuse 1889)... Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) camptorhynchus (Thompson 1868)... Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) normanensis (Taylor 1915)... Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) sagax (Skuse 1889)... Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) theobaldi (Taylor 1914)... Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) vigilax (Skuse 1889)... Culex (Culex) annulirostris (Skuse 1889)... Culex (Culex) sitiens (Wiedemann 1828)... Coquillettidia (Coquillettidia) xanthogaster (Edwards 1924)

7 xxiii 14 Central and South America Key to Central and South American Female Mosquitoes Species Description... Anopheles (Anopheles) calderoni (Wilkerson 1991)... Anopheles (Anopheles) pseudopunctipennis (Theobald 1901)... Anopheles (Anopheles) punctimacula (Dyar and Knab 1906)... Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) albimanus (Wiedemann 1820)... Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) aquasalis (Curry 1932)... Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) darlingi (Root 1926)... Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) nuneztovari (Gabaldon 1940)... Haemagogus (Haemagogus) janthinomys (Dyar 1921)... Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) albifasciatus (Macquart 1838)... Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) scapularis (Rondani 1848)... Culex (Culex) nigripalpus (Theobald 1901)... Mansonia (Mansonia) titillans (Walker 1848) North America Key to North American Female Mosquitoes Species Description... Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) sollicitans (Walker 1856)... Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) taeniorhynchus (Wiedemann 1821)... Psorophora (Grabhamia) columbiae (Dyar and Knab 1906)... Psorophora (Janthinosoma) ferox (von Humboldt 1819)... Culex (Culex) restuans (Theobald 1901)... Culex (Culex) salinarius (Coquillett 1904)... Culex (Culex) tarsalis (Coquillett 1896)... Coquillettidia (Coquillettidia) perturbans (Walker 1856) Part IV Control of Mosquitoes 16 Biological Control Introduction Predators Vertebrate Predators Invertebrate Predators Parasites Nematodes Pathogens Fungi Protozoa Bacteria Viruses Environmental Management of Mosquitoes Introduction Environmental Management of Mosquitoes in Urban Areas Denying Mosquito Access to Urban Areas, and into Homes Construction Sites

8 xxiv Water Storage Containers Drainage Systems Sewage and Waste-Water Processing Cemeteries Urban Sanitation Environmental Management of Mosquitoes in Rural Areas Agriculture Natural Wetlands Environmental Management of Mosquitoes and Human Issues Community Participation Regulations for Environmental Management of Mosquitoes Chemical Control History Insecticide Classification of Insecticides Insecticide Formulations Insecticide Application Techniques Chemical Groups of Insecticides Chlorinated Hydrocarbons Organophosphates Carbamates Pyrethroids Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) Novel Insecticide Classes Management and Monitoring of Insecticide Resistance Resistance Mechanisms Resistance Surveillance Resistance Management Physical Control Introduction Physical Control of Immature Mosquitoes Oil Surface Films and Polystyrene Beads Physical Control of Adult Mosquitoes Other Technology: A Novel Technology or New Tool Conclusions Genetic Control of Mosquitoes Introduction Population Elimination Via the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) Introduction Rearing and Sexing Male Sterilization SIT in Practice

9 xxv 20.3 Population Replacement The principle of Population Replacement Refractoriness to Pathogens Genetic Drivers Ethical, Legal and Social Implications of the Use of Genetic Techniques for Mosquito Control Absence of Community Participation International Committee for Genetic Control Work Personal Protection Introduction Impregnated Bednets Repellents Against Mosquitoes Repellents on Skin or Clothing Mosquito Coils Vapourizing Mats Liquid Vapourizers Implementation and Integration of Mosquito Control Measures Introduction Prerequisites for the Successful Implementation of the IVM programme Entomological Research (Monitoring) Mapping of the Breeding Sites Selection of Appropriate Tools Effective Dosage Assessment Design of the Control Strategy Training of Field Staff Governmental Application Requirements Community Participation Registration of Insecticides Routine Treatments Public Information Systems References Subject Index Taxonomic Index

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